Seats
Archimandrite Nikifor’s Biblical Encyclopedia
(Matt. 21:12)—stools, chairs, couches, and other places for sitting or reclining. Ordinary Near Eastern homes traditionally used mats and rugs, while wealthier houses also had cushions, low couches, and decorated furniture. Ancient Israelites at first commonly sat on the ground; in later periods reclining at meals became familiar. Amos condemns luxurious indifference among those who lie on ivory beds while ignoring the ruin of Joseph (Amos 6:4–7). These descriptions reflect both biblical evidence and the encyclopedia’s period observations of Eastern domestic life.