Biblical Encyclopedia: T
396 entries · Archimandrite Nikifor’s Biblical Encyclopedia
(“sandy ground”) (Josh. 12:21)—a Canaanite royal city near Megiddo on the edge of the Jezreel Valley. Israel conquered its king; the town fell within Manasseh’s territory and was assigned to the Levites (Josh. 17:11; 21:25). Barak and Deborah’s victory over Sisera is celebrated as occurring “at Taanach, by the waters of Megiddo” (Judg. 5:19). Under Solomon it belonged to the district governed by Baana son of Ahilud (1 Kings 4:12). It is identified with Tell Ta‘annek southeast of Megiddo.
Taanach
(Judg. 5:19; 1 Chron. 7:29)—see Taanach above.
Taanath-shiloh Janoca
(Josh. 16:6)—a boundary town of Ephraim, commonly associated with a site east or northeast of Shechem. The source’s proposed identification with ‘Ain Tana is uncertain.
Tabaoth
(1 Esd. 5:29)—a variant form of Tabbaoth, ancestor of a family of Temple servants who returned from exile.
Tabbaoth (Tabaoth)
(Ezra 2:43; Neh. 7:46; 1 Esd. 5:29)—ancestor of a family of Temple servants who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel. The ancient versions preserve variant spellings.
Tabbath
(Judg. 7:22)—a place near Abel-meholah toward which the Midianites fled after Gideon’s attack. Its exact location is unknown.
Tabeal
(Isa. 7:6)—father of the unnamed “son of Tabeal” whom the kings of Aram and Israel intended to install as a puppet king in Jerusalem after deposing Ahaz. Their plan failed, and Isaiah’s response led into the prophecy of Immanuel (Isa. 7:7–14).
Tabeel
(Ezra 4:7)—one of the persons named in hostile correspondence sent to the Persian king Artaxerxes concerning Jerusalem. The source calls him a governor of Samaria and connects the opposition specifically with Ezra; those details are not stated by the verse.
Taberah
(burning; Num. 11:1–3)—the place in the wilderness named from the fire of the LORD that consumed part of the camp after Israel complained. Its precise location is unknown.
—a movable tent and sacred dwelling. Exodus 33 describes a temporary “tent of meeting” outside the camp, where Moses sought the LORD, received revelation, and met those who inquired of God. David later pitched a tent in Jerusalem for the Ark (2 Sam. 6:17). The principal Tabernacle, however, was the sanctuary built by Moses at God’s command according to the pattern shown on Sinai. It was the visible sign of God dwelling among Israel, the palace of Israel’s divine King, the center of public worship, and a figure of heavenly realities (Exod. 25–40; Heb. 9:1–8). The people freely supplied costly materials, and Bezalel and Oholiab directed the work by divinely given skill.
(gazelle; Acts 9:36–42)—a disciple at Joppa, full of good works and almsgiving. When she died, the widows showed Peter the tunics and garments she had made. Peter sent everyone out, prayed, and said, “Tabitha, arise.” She opened her eyes, sat up, and was restored alive to the believers. The miracle became known throughout Joppa, and many believed in the Lord.
(Exod. 24:12; Deut. 4:13; 2 Cor. 3:3; Heb. 9:4)—the two stone tablets on which God Himself wrote the Ten Commandments. The encyclopedia follows the traditional division in which the first four commandments concern the knowledge and worship of God and the remaining six concern duty toward one’s neighbor. The two tablets thus correspond to the two great commandments of love: love of God and love of neighbor.
Tabor, City
(1 Chron. 6:77)—a town associated with the tribe of Zebulun and the Levitical allotments. The textual form and exact identification are uncertain.
Tabrimmon Ader
(1 Kings 15:18)—father of Ben-hadad, king of Aram, and son of Hezion.
(1 Kings 9:18; 2 Chron. 8:4)—an oasis city in the Syrian desert between Damascus and the Euphrates. Its Semitic name Tadmor is ancient; the Greco-Roman name Palmyra was associated with palms. Because its springs and fertile oasis lay on caravan routes linking Mesopotamia with Syria and the Mediterranean, the city became a major center of long-distance trade.
Tahan
(Num. 26:35)—a son of Telah in Ephraim’s genealogy and ancestor of the Tahanite clan.
Tahan
(1 Chron. 7:25)—a son of Telah and father of Ladan in the genealogy of Ephraim, among the ancestors of Joshua son of Nun.
Tahash
(Gen. 22:24)—a son of Abraham’s brother Nahor by his concubine Reumah.
Tahath
—the name of several persons and a place. (1) (Num. 33:26–27) an Israelite encampment between Makheloth and Terah. (2) (1 Chron. 6:24, 37) a Kohathite Levite in Samuel’s ancestry. (3) (1 Chron. 7:20) a descendant of Ephraim. The wilderness station’s location is unknown.
Tahath
(1 Chron. 7:20)—the name of two descendants of Ephraim in the same genealogy: one a son of Bered and another a son of Eleadah.
(Jer. 2:16; 43:7–11; Ezek. 30:18)—an Egyptian city in the eastern Delta near the route from Palestine, known to the Greeks as Daphnae. Judean refugees fled there after Jerusalem’s fall. Jeremiah buried stones in the pavement at Pharaoh’s house and foretold that Nebuchadnezzar would set his throne over them. A later tradition placed Jeremiah’s death there, but Scripture does not.
(1 Kings 11:19–20)—queen of Egypt in the time of David and Solomon. Pharaoh gave her sister in marriage to Hadad the Edomite; Tahpenes weaned their son Genubath in Pharaoh’s house, where he was raised among the royal children. The proposal that her name was also that of an Egyptian goddess is uncertain.
Tahrea Tharach
(1 Chron. 8:35; 9:41)—a son of Micah in the line of Merib-baal, Jonathan, and Saul. The spelling varies among manuscripts and translations.
Tahtim-hodshi
(2 Sam. 24:6)—a difficult geographical expression in the account of David’s census. The Hebrew text and ancient versions are uncertain; proposals place it toward the northern or northeastern limit of the kingdom, but no secure identification is possible.
(Exod. 38:25–29; Matt. 18:24; 25:15)—a large unit of weight and monetary reckoning, commonly divided into sixty minas. Its exact mass and value varied by place, period, and standard; Hebrew sanctuary reckoning associated it with three thousand shekels, while Greek systems could reckon six thousand drachmas. Scripture speaks of talents of gold, silver, bronze, iron, and lead. In Christ’s parables the enormous sum emphasizes both the master’s generous trust and, in Matthew 18, the servant’s unpayable debt. Obsolete conversion into nineteenth-century rubles is omitted.
Talitha cumi
(Mark 5:41)—the Aramaic words spoken by Jesus to Jairus’s dead daughter: “Little girl, I say unto thee, arise.” Mark preserves the original expression and immediately supplies its meaning; Matthew and Luke narrate the same raising without quoting the Aramaic words (Matt. 9:23–25; Luke 8:51–55).
(“bold” or “furrowed”)—(1) king of Geshur and father of Maacah, one of David’s wives and mother of Absalom. After killing Amnon, Absalom fled to his grandfather Talmai and remained in Geshur for three years (2 Sam. 3:3; 13:37). (2) One of the three Anakim living at Hebron whom the spies saw in the land and whom Caleb later drove out (Num. 13:22; Josh. 15:14; Judg. 1:10). The narrative records Israel’s fear of the Anakim without requiring the source’s literalizing ethnological speculation about “giants.”
Talmon
(1 Chron. 9:17; Ezra 2:42; Neh. 11:19)—a gatekeeper whose descendants formed a family of Temple gatekeepers after the exile. The name may represent more than one individual across the generations.
Tamah
(Ezra 2:53; Neh. 7:55)—an ancestor of a family of temple servants who returned from exile with Zerubbabel. The name also appears in variant forms such as Tema or Thamah.
Tamar
(Ezek. 47:19; 48:28)—a place on or near the southern boundary of the land in Ezekiel’s vision. Its location is disputed.
(“palm tree”)—the name of three women. (1) The Canaanite daughter-in-law of Judah (Gen. 38). Her first husband Er died under divine judgment; his brother Onan also died after refusing his duty toward her. Judah promised that she would marry his younger son Shelah but did not fulfill the promise. Tamar then disguised herself, obtained Judah’s seal, cord, and staff as pledges, and conceived Perez and Zerah by him. When Judah later sought her punishment, the pledges exposed his responsibility, and he acknowledged, “She is more righteous than I.” Perez stands in the genealogy of Jesus Christ (Matt. 1:3). The narrative reveals Judah’s failure and Tamar’s precarious position; it is not an endorsement of deception or exploitation.
Tamarisk
. See Oak.
(Ezek. 8:14)—a Mesopotamian dying-and-returning vegetation deity, the Dumuzi of Sumerian tradition, later compared with the Syrian and Greek Adonis. Ezekiel saw women at the north gate of the Temple weeping for Tammuz, one of the idolatrous abominations shown to the prophet. The fourth month of the later Hebrew calendar bears the name Tammuz. Older accounts described Syrian mourning rites for Adonis and their transition from lamentation to celebration; these parallels illuminate the cultic setting but do not make every regional practice identical.
Tammuz Thammuz
(Ezek. 8:14)—see Tammuz.
Tanhumeth
(2 Kings 25:23; Jer. 40:8)—a Netophathite and father of Seraiah, one of the Judean military leaders who joined Gedaliah after Jerusalem’s fall.
(Judith 1:10; Num. 13:22)—an ancient city in the northeastern Nile Delta. Scripture’s Zoan is commonly identified with Tanis, though the region’s shifting royal centers and reused monuments complicate simple equations. Numbers says that Zoan was built seven years after Hebron. The encyclopedia’s ruins and nineteenth-century place-names reflect the state of exploration in its period.
(Acts 9:43) - animal hides were made into shoes, sandals, girdles, parchment, and many household articles. A distinct class of craftsmen, the tanners, carried on this work. Rabbinic teaching regarded their trade as unclean; because of the offensive smell, tanneries were usually placed outside towns beside rivers or the sea. Peter lodged by the sea with a tanner named Simon (Acts 9:43).
Taphath Aminadab Tephath
(1 Kings 4:11)—a daughter of Solomon and wife of Ben-abinadab, one of Solomon’s district governors.
(apple)—the name of a man and of several places. (1) (1 Chron. 2:43) a son of Hebron in the genealogy of Judah. (2) (Josh. 12:17; 15:34) a Canaanite royal city later assigned to Judah; its site is uncertain. (3) (Josh. 16:8; 17:8) a town or district on the border of Ephraim and Manasseh, commonly associated with En-tappuah and sometimes proposed near modern Yasuf, though the identification is debated.
Taralah Nacan Selecan Thareela
(“strength of God”) (Josh. 18:27)—a town allotted to Benjamin. Its location is unknown.
Tares
(Matt. 13:25)—a general name for weeds, and in the Savior’s parable a particular grain-like weed, commonly identified with darnel. The Fathers, including St. John Chrysostom and St. Macarius, discuss it as the image of evil sown among the good.
Tarpelites Tarphalaeans
(Ezra 4:9)—one of the groups named in the opponents’ letter to Artaxerxes. Their identity and homeland are unknown.
—a name applied in Scripture to three persons and to a distant place or region. (1) A son of Javan, son of Japheth (Gen. 10:4; 1 Chron. 1:7), whose line is associated with the maritime peoples. (2) A son of Jediael in Benjamin and head of a family of warriors (1 Chron. 7:10-11). (3) One of the seven Persian and Median princes who had access to King Ahasuerus and advised concerning Queen Vashti (Esth. 1:14).
(2 Macc. 4:30; Acts 9:11; 21:39)—the principal city of ancient Cilicia and the birthplace of the Apostle Paul. It stood on the Cydnus River near the Mediterranean and was renowned for commerce and learning. Under Rome it enjoyed important civic privileges; Paul therefore described himself as a Jew of Tarsus, “a citizen of no mean city,” and also possessed Roman citizenship by birth (Acts 21:39; 22:25–28).
Tartak Tharthac
(2 Kings 17:31)—a deity made by the Avvites who were resettled in Samaria. The source repeats an old claim that the idol had the form of a donkey, but Scripture gives no description and the deity remains unidentified.
Tartan
(Isa. 20:1)—the title of the Assyrian commander sent by Sargon II against Ashdod. The word is an official military title rather than necessarily a personal name.
Tatam
(Josh. 15:59 in the Septuagint tradition)—a town in the hill country of Judah named only in the Greek textual addition. Its site is unknown.
(Ezra 5:3)—the governor of the province Beyond the River under Darius I. When the returned exiles resumed building the Temple, Tattenai, Shethar-bozenai, and their associates inspected the work, asked who had authorized it, recorded the leaders’ names, and reported the matter to Darius. They did not stop construction while awaiting the royal decision. After the decree of Cyrus was found, Darius ordered them not to interfere and to support the work from royal revenue (Ezra 5:3-17; 6:6-13). Contemporary Persian-period documents also attest a governor named Tattenai, supporting the historical setting.
—one who instructs. Greek translations of the Semitic titles Rabbi and Rabboni commonly use “Teacher” (John 1:38; 20:16). Jesus is addressed by this title and is confessed by his disciples as Teacher and Lord (John 13:13). He warns against seeking honorific titles as instruments of spiritual pride, because the Messiah is the Church’s definitive Teacher and all disciples stand as brothers and sisters before God (Matt. 23:7-10). The New Testament also recognizes a genuine ministry and gift of teaching within the Church.
Tebah
(Gen. 22:24)—a son of Nahor by his concubine Reumah.
Tebaliah Tablai
(1 Chron. 26:11)—a son of Hosah, a Merarite Levite and gatekeeper.
Tebeth Adar
(Esth. 2:16)—the tenth month of the later Hebrew calendar, falling approximately in December and January. Its name is Babylonian and is related to a season of cold or sinking into winter; exact correspondence with modern dates varies by lunar year.
Techinnah
(supplication or favor; 1 Chron. 4:12)—a descendant of Judah named as the father or founder of Ir-nahash. The source’s identification of the place with a nineteenth-century village near Beit Jibrin is conjectural.
Tekoa Thecoe
(2 Sam. 14:2, 4, 9; 23:26; 1 Chron. 11:28; 27:9; 2 Chron. 11:6; 20:20, and elsewhere)—a town in the hill country of Judah, about ten miles south of Jerusalem and near the edge of the wilderness that bears its name. Its biblical name is preserved in modern Khirbet Tuqu‘.
Tel-abib
(Ezek. 3:15)—a settlement by the River Chebar where Ezekiel found Judean exiles and sat among them overwhelmed for seven days. Its exact location is unknown; the ancient name is unrelated to the modern Israeli city of Tel Aviv.
Tel-melah
(salt mound; Ezra 2:59; Neh. 7:61)—a place in Babylonia from which returning families came whose Israelite genealogy they could not prove. Its location, like that of Tel-harsha, is unknown; proposals near the Chebar remain conjectural.
Telah Thalees Thaen
(1 Chron. 7:25)—a descendant of Ephraim, named as the son of Resheph and father of Tahan in the genealogy leading to Joshua son of Nun.
Telaim Galgala
(lambs; 1 Sam. 15:4)—the place where Saul mustered Israel before the campaign against Amalek, probably in southern Judah near the Edomite frontier. Its relation to Telem is uncertain.
Telassar
(2 Kings 19:12; Isa. 37:12)—a district or city associated with the “children of Eden” conquered by Assyria. It is often connected with Til-Ashur or a site in northern Mesopotamia, but its precise location remains uncertain.
Telem
—the name of a person and a place. (1) (Ezra 10:24; compare 1 Esd. 9:25; Neh. 7:45) a gatekeeper connected with the postexilic community; the textual traditions give variant names, including Talmon. (2) (Josh. 15:24) a town in southern Judah whose location is unknown.
(“desert”)—(1) a son of Ishmael and ancestor of a tribal group (Gen. 25:15; 1 Chron. 1:30); (2) a North Arabian oasis and trading center, generally identified with Tayma in northwestern Arabia. Caravans of Tema appear beside those of Sheba in Job 6:19. Isaiah addresses the inhabitants of Tema in connection with refugees and the judgment on Arabia (Isa. 21:14), and Jeremiah includes Tema among peoples facing judgment (Jer. 25:23). Its position on caravan routes linked Arabia with Syria, Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean world.
(“south country”)—(1) a son of Eliphaz, Esau’s firstborn, and a grandson of Esau (Gen. 36:11, 15; 1 Chron. 1:36). A chief named Teman also appears in the list of Edomite clans (Gen. 36:42; 1 Chron. 1:53). (2) A district or town of Edom, associated especially with Edomite wisdom (Jer. 49:7; Obad. 8-9). Eliphaz, Job’s friend, is called a Temanite (Job 2:11; 4:1). Its exact site is uncertain, and the name may sometimes denote a broader southern or eastern region of Edom.
Temeni Thaeman
(1 Chron. 4:6)—a son of Ashhur, father of Tekoa, by his wife Naarah. The source spells the name Timni.
(Matt 6:13). In the Lord's Prayer, temptation is to be understood as a convergence of circumstances in which there is an imminent danger of losing one's faith or falling into grave sin. Temptations come upon people from the flesh, from the world, from other people, or from the devil. In the words of the Lord's Prayer, 'Lead us not into temptation,' we ask, first, that God not permit us to be brought into temptation; and second, that if we must be purified and tested by means of temptation, He not deliver us over to it completely or permit us to fall.
Tephon Taphon
(1 Macc. 9:50)—one of the Judean strongholds fortified by Bacchides during the conflict with Jonathan. Its location is uncertain.
(Gen. 11:24-32; Josh. 24:2; 1 Chron. 1:26)—a descendant of Shem, son of Nahor, and father of Abram, Nahor, and Haran. He lived in Ur of the Chaldeans. Haran died during Terah’s lifetime, leaving Lot. Joshua 24:2 says that Israel’s ancestors, including Terah, lived beyond the Euphrates and served other gods.
Terah (wilderness station)
(Num. 33:27–28)—one of Israel’s encampments between Tahath and Mithcah. Its location is unknown and it should not be confused with Abraham’s father of the same English spelling.
(Judg. 17:5)—household cult images used in divination and domestic worship. Micah possessed an ephod and teraphim, which the Danites later carried away with his priest (Judg. 17–18). Rachel stole her father Laban’s teraphim (Gen. 31:19, 34), and Michal placed a teraphim in David’s bed to deceive Saul’s messengers (1 Sam. 19:13, 16), showing that at least some could resemble a human figure. Ezekiel depicts the king of Babylon consulting teraphim before a campaign (Ezek. 21:21), and Hosea names them among the institutions Israel would temporarily lack (Hos. 3:4). Their forms and precise functions varied; they should not simply be equated with Roman household gods.
(Hos. 4:13; Isa. 6:13; Sir. 24:16)—a spreading tree of the pistachio family, common in the eastern Mediterranean and valued for shade and resin. Older translations and the source sometimes confuse the terebinth with the oak, but the terms are not identical and the exact species varies by passage. Scripture associates such trees with prominent places, shade, and at times illicit worship. Isaiah uses the enduring stump of an oak or terebinth as an image of the holy seed that remains after judgment (Isa. 6:13).
Tertius
(Rom. 16:22)—the scribe who wrote down Paul’s Epistle to the Romans and added his own greeting: “I Tertius, who wrote this epistle, salute you in the Lord.” Later tradition numbered him among the Seventy and assigned him an episcopate, but the New Testament supplies no such details.
(Acts 24:1–8)—the orator or advocate who presented the high priest Ananias and the elders’ accusation against Paul before the governor Felix. His polished flattery and legal rhetoric contrast with Paul’s defense. The name does not establish that he was Roman; he may have been a professional spokesman familiar with provincial procedure.
(Matt. 14:1; Luke 3:1)—a ruler of a territorial subdivision under Roman authority. Although the word originally meant ruler of a fourth part, New Testament usage does not require an exact quarter. Herod Antipas governed Galilee and Perea; Philip governed Iturea and Trachonitis with neighboring districts; and Lysanias governed Abilene. Such rulers remained subordinate to Rome, and Herod Antipas could also be called a king in popular speech (Mark 6:14).
(Luke 3:1)—originally the ruler of one fourth of a territory, but later a more general title for a subordinate regional prince under Roman authority. In the New Testament Herod Antipas, Philip, and Lysanias are called tetrarchs. A tetrarch could colloquially be called a king, though the formal titles were not identical. Herod the Great received the title tetrarch before Rome later recognized him as king of Judea.
(Mark 3:18)—one of the Twelve Apostles. Matthew 10:3 also gives Thaddaeus, with “Lebbaeus” in some manuscripts. Luke calls him Judas of James (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13), and John refers to “Judas, not Iscariot” (John 14:22). These names have traditionally been understood to refer to the same apostle, Judas or Jude; the precise meaning of Luke’s “of James” may be “son of” or “brother of.”
Thamnatha
(1 Macc. 9:50)—a town fortified by Bacchides during his campaign in Judea. It is commonly associated with the Timnah or Thamna region, but the source’s proposed modern location is uncertain.
Tharea
(1 Chron. 9:41)—a variant form of Tahrea, a son of Micah in Saul’s genealogy. See Tahrea.
(Esth. 2:21-23; additions to Esther)—one of two royal eunuchs who guarded the threshold and conspired against King Ahasuerus or Artaxerxes; the other is called Bigthan in the Hebrew text and Gabatha in Greek tradition. Mordecai discovered the plot, reported it through Esther, and the conspirators were executed after investigation. Mordecai’s service was entered in the royal chronicles and later became decisive in his vindication.
Thassi
(1 Macc. 2:3)—the surname of Simon, one of the five sons of the priest Mattathias. With his father and brothers he withdrew from Jerusalem to Modein during the persecution of Antiochus IV and became a leader in the Maccabean struggle. See Simon and Mattathias.
(Acts 27:2). Adramyttium was a seaport in Mysia, in Asia Minor, at the foot of Mount Ida. In antiquity it was reckoned an important trading city. It is now known by the name Edremit, or Adramyti, and lies sixty or eighty English miles north of Smyrna, with about 1,000 houses. To this city belonged the ship in which the Apostle Paul sailed, sent as a prisoner from Caesarea to Rome.
(Acts 27:27). In this sea, as is known, the ship carrying the Apostle Paul, on his way to Rome, was once caught in a storm. Now under this name is known the gulf lying between Italy on one side and the coast of Dalmatia on the other, called the Venetian Gulf. In the apostle’s time, it is thought, this name meant the whole breadth of the Mediterranean Sea, from Crete to Sicily.
(Acts 17:22). Concerning this altar many explanations have been offered. The Apostle Paul, in his speech before the Athenian Areopagus, says that he saw such an altar at Athens with the inscription: Agnosto Theo. It may be supposed that there were several such altars, and this is how they are said to have originated, according to the testimony of Diogenes Laertius: in his biography of Epimenides he relates that the Athenians, struck by a pestilence and not knowing to which deity to attribute this calamity, led two sheep, one white and one black, outside the city, and in whatever places the sheep lay down upon the ground, they erected altars to the corresponding deities with the aforementioned inscription.
It is quite possible, however, that the inscription referred also to the God of the Hebrews, since the pronouncing of His name was forbidden by the ordinances of the Hebrew lawgiver.
(1 Sam. 15:6) — a powerful people, occupying the country between Palestine and Egypt, called in the Book of Numbers (24:20) “the first of the nations.” They were heavily defeated in battle with the children of Israel at Rephidim, and for their sin in opposing the well-being of God’s people, they came under His terrible judgment. Afterward they were struck and defeated by Gideon (Judg. 7:12–25), by Saul (1 Sam. 15), and by David (1 Sam. 30). At last the word of the Lord was fulfilled upon them, and their name vanished from the face of the earth (1 Sam. 30:17; 1 Chron. 4:43).
(mountain-dwellers, or highlanders) (Gen. 10:16; Num. 13:30 [as given]) — a tribe descended from Canaan, the most fearsome of all the peoples with whom the Israelites ever had dealings. They were of gigantic stature and very warlike (Amos 2:9); they inhabited one of the most fertile lands on earth, washed on three sides by the rivers Arnon, Jabbok, and Jordan. The Israelites asked permission to pass through their land, promising to do no harm and not even to draw water from their wells, but this request was refused.
The Amorites gathered and tried to stop their advance, but were utterly defeated; their land was taken and divided between the tribes of Reuben and Gad. A branch of this same people originally dwelt between the western cliffs and the bitumen pits of the shores of the Dead Sea (Gen. 14:7). The word “Amorite” is sometimes used in a coarser sense, almost synonymous with the designation “Canaanite.”
The angel of His presence
(that is, of the Lord) (Isa. 63:9) — under this title some understand the Archangel Gabriel, who stands before the face of God; others refer this expression to the Incarnate Word Himself, who is the radiance of the glory of the Father.
(Rev. 2:1) — the chief minister, or representative, of a Jewish synagogue, was called the angel of the church, because he addressed prayer and intercession to God on behalf of the Jews, as their spiritual intercessor. According to the teaching of the Orthodox Church, every church, country, region, city, and individual person each has their own guardians, just as, in the words of the Gospel, little children also have theirs (Matt. 18:10).
The Angel of the Lord
(Gen. 16:7) — is one of the common Old Testament designations of the Second Person of the Holy Trinity, the Son of God, who was to become incarnate (Exod. 23:20; Judg. 7:38 [as given]).
(revelation) — a prophetic book, the last of the New Testament books. The book was written by St. John the Theologian on the island of Patmos, to which he had been exiled by Domitian for his testimony concerning Jesus Christ; it consists of 22 chapters. On a certain Lord’s day, John was in the Spirit, and in this supernatural state of vision the Lord Jesus Christ appeared to him and commanded him to describe, for the seven churches of Asia Minor, the visions that appeared to him (1:9–19), revealing to him the future fate of the Christian Church in various symbolic images.
The purpose of the revelation is to comfort believers amid persecution and dispel their anxious fears for the future of Christianity, against which both Jews (11:1–17) and pagans (11:18–19, 20) and false teachers (13:11–19) are arrayed on every side. Its subject is the war of the serpent, the ancient tempter, against the Lamb the Redeemer, the Lamb’s complete and final victory, and the future renewal of the whole world. The book concludes with the words: “He which testifieth these things saith, Surely I come quickly. Amen. Even so, come, Lord Jesus. The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen.”
The appendix compares historical proper-name forms rather than translating prose.
Each source page contains two mapping blocks. In each block, the entry and Scripture reference as printed in the Russian Bible appear first, followed by the corresponding Church Slavonic form. Read the left block from top to bottom and then the right block from top to bottom.
The Arabian Gulf.
See Red Sea.
The Archevites Archyaeans
(inhabitants of Erech) (Ezra 4:9) — one of the eastern peoples, whose territory — Erech — had from ancient times been part of the kingdom of Babylon and lay on the Tigris, between Susiana and Babylonia.
(Acts 17:19–34) — the second word is the title of the judges of the supreme tribunal in Athens. This name derives from the word “Areopagus” (hill of Mars, or Ares), meaning either the tribunal itself or the place where its sessions were held, always under the open sky. This was a rocky elevation, or crag of Ares, almost in the very center of the city. The court that assembled here dealt chiefly with inquiries and legal proceedings concerning blasphemies against the pagan gods; it was for this reason that St. Paul the Apostle, who so sharply denounced the idolatry of the Athenians and urged them to seek and serve the Lord as the one living and true God, was brought to the Areopagus for preaching foreign deities (Acts 17:18).
It was here, in view of the multitude of temples and altars, among which there was even an altar to “the unknown god,” in view of the altars of various pagan gods, that the apostle delivered his lofty and profoundly notable sermon to the Athenians (Acts 17:22–34). Owing to this compelling sermon, some believed in the Lord Jesus Christ, such as one member of the Areopagus, Dionysius, a woman named Damaris, and others with them. The place where, it is thought, the hill of Ares stood is now covered with the ruins of large buildings: these are thought to be the remains of the houses of Dionysius and Damaris, built, no doubt, not long before the introduction of Christianity in Athens.
It is said that sessions of the Areopagus were held only at night, for the purpose that the minds of the Areopagite judges should not be distracted by anything extraneous.
The armory
(Jer. 50:25), the place in which the Hebrews stored weapons of war in peacetime, something in the manner of our arsenal. From a hint in the Book of Song of Songs (4:4) it is evident that there was a certain military storehouse, called there the “tower of David.”
(Luke 24:50, 53; Acts 1:9–12). “And he led them out as far as to Bethany,” relates St. Luke the Evangelist concerning this most glorious event of the Lord’s earthly life, “and he lifted up his hands, and blessed them. And it came to pass, while he blessed them, he was parted from them, and carried up into heaven. And they worshipped him, and returned to Jerusalem with great joy.” The Ascension of the Lord into heaven took place on the mount called Olivet, which is near Jerusalem, a sabbath day’s journey away (Acts 1:9–13).
(See Mount of Olives.) The Lord Jesus Christ ascended into heaven in His humanity, for in His Divinity He always was and remains in heaven. “We have such an high priest,” says St. Paul the Apostle, “who is set on the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens” (Heb. 8:1).
The ascent of Akrabbim Acrabin
(Josh. 15:3; Judg. 1:36) — a height between the Dead Sea and the wilderness of Zin, separating Palestine from rocky Arabia, and consisting of a chain of cliffs and submerged crags.
The Asiarchs
(Acts 19:31) — this was the name given to officials in the Asian provinces, whose duty it was to oversee public games and religious spectacles (Herodian I, p. 142 [as given]).
The Asideans
(merciful, devout) (1 Macc. 2:42) — a particular society of zealots for the faith and the Law in the time of the Maccabees.
(Gen. 49:17) — a horned, venomous serpent with white and black spots, whose venom is very sharp and kills almost instantly; it is sand-colored, hides in the deep ruts left by cart wheels, and from there bites the unwary traveler or his horse. “Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path, that biteth the horse heels,” says Jacob in his prophetic deathbed blessing of his children, “so that his rider shall fall backward.” “Adders’ poison is under their lips,” says the psalmist (Ps. 139 [140]:3), pointing thereby to the malice of the wicked.
A child’s playing over the den of so venomous a creature might be extremely foolish and dangerous, and it is for this reason that the following figurative expression of the prophet Isaiah is marked by such particular power and beauty: “And the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice’ den” (Isa. 11:8) — an expression vividly conveying the peace and safety of the kingdom of the Messiah. The psalmist points to a particular species of asp — the “deaf adder which stoppeth her ear” (Ps. 58 [57]:4 [5]), that is, a serpent that does not move and is not charmed by the sound of music.
It is thought that the most venomous species of asp is meant here. Other kinds of serpents are often charmed by the sound of music and become tame, as may still be seen today in the bazaars of India or Egypt; but the deaf adder is not so — it is deaf to everything, which evidently points to the extreme degree of hardness of a man’s heart.
(Num. 34:12) — into which the river Jordan flows; it was formed on the very site where once stood the wicked cities of the plain of Siddim: Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Zoar (Gen. 14:3). The prophet Joel calls it the Eastern Sea, on account of its geographical position (2:20). The Greeks call it the Asphalt Sea, on account of the abundance of mineral pitch, or asphalt, found in it, and the Arabs call it the Sea of Lot. Almost no living creature is found in the waters of this sea, or on its shores, and everything around it appears gloomy, barren, and as if lifeless.
(Matt. 10:29) — a small bronze Roman coin in circulation, worth in our money somewhat more than 2 kopecks (2 3/20 kop.). It is mentioned in the New Testament only twice (Matt. 10:29 and Luke 12:6). In ancient times it bore the image of the Roman pagan deity Janus, and later, in the age of Augustus, the image of the Roman emperor.
(Ps. 91 [90]:13) (in Hebrew: pethen, shephiphon, tsepha, tsiphoni) — a reptile, of the serpent kind, and moreover among the most venomous. Anyone can recognize it by its hiss. It does not bend its body when it crawls, but moves straight forward. Its native land is Upper Egypt, but it is also found in Palestine. The eggs of the basilisk are likewise venomous and cause death to anyone who eats them. The basilisk usually hides in the sand, from which it is little distinguished by its brownish color, and is noticeable only by its protruding little horns.
At the slightest touch, the basilisk springs up and quickly seizes its prey. In the Bible, the death of Ahaz is compared, for the Philistines, to the basilisk (asp), so that they should not rejoice over it, since, by the word of the prophet Isaiah, “out of the serpent’s root shall come forth a cockatrice, and his fruit shall be a fiery flying serpent” (Isa. 14:29). Hezekiah indeed drove out the Philistines. In the same way, the hatching of serpents’ eggs is likened to the wicked deeds of the Jews, which would bring them great harm.
“They (that is, the Jews) hatch cockatrice’ eggs, and weave the spider’s web,” says the prophet Isaiah; “he that eateth of their eggs dieth, and that which is crushed breaketh out into a viper” (Isa. 59:5). The prophet Jeremiah likens to basilisks the Chaldeans sent by God to punish the unrepentant Jews for their impiety (8:17).
The bath
— a measure of liquids among the Hebrews (1 Kings 7:26–38). By our Russian measure, a bath contains more than four vedros [buckets].
The Beanites
(1 Macc. 5:4) — the sons, or descendants, of Bean formed, it seems, a band of robbers living in fortified places (towers), engaged in plunder, and destroyed by Judas Maccabeus.
(Job 9:9) — the name of a star in the constellation of the Great Bear. The ancient astronomers regarded the heliacal rising and setting of the Bear-star as a portent of sea-storms and hurricanes. It is thought that Job, in the cited passage, refers either to this star, or perhaps to the whole constellation of the Great Bear. The first to introduce this constellation were the Phoenicians, who were guided by it in their seafaring.
(Lev. 13:29, 30) — the Jews paid no small attention to the beard (Ps. 132 [133]:2). It was considered a great insult if someone, in anger or to express contempt for a certain person, plucked at his beard, or took hold of it, whereas kissing the beard served as a special sign of respect and friendship. The plucking out of hairs from the beard, or its complete shaving off, and neglect of its cleanliness and proper appearance, served as a sign of deep grief (Ezra 9:3; Ps. 15 [?]:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37).
The Arabs, even to the present day, show great care for the beard. They swear solemnly by it, and to express the very best wishes to a guest or friend, they usually say: “May Allah preserve thy beard!” It is told that a certain Arab, wounded in the lower jaw, resolved to risk his life rather than allow his beard to be shaved off so that a physician could examine the wound. A gray beard is still to this day considered among the inhabitants of the East a symbol of wisdom, as well as a measure of advanced years and venerable old age.
The Bible.
See Holy Scripture.
The material for these consisted of grains or ears of corn, flour with oil and frankincense, baked goods of flour with oil in various forms, frankincense, and wine. Sometimes these materials were joined to other offerings and sacrifices, and sometimes they were offered separately. They belonged partly to the altar, and partly to the priests and Levites. Salt was always added to all such offerings, but leavened bread and anything containing leaven was never burned on the altar, and honey was altogether excluded from among the offerings (Lev. 2:2; 6:14–16 [as given]; Num. 28:5).
(of the forest, wild, otherwise called swine) (Ps. 80 [79]:13) — a cloven-hoofed animal, of the thick-skinned family, distinguished by its strength and ferocity. Modern travelers relate that wild boars are very numerous in northern Africa and Asia, partly on the banks of the Jordan and in the reed thickets of the Sea of Tiberias. The psalmist’s allusion in the citation given above to “the boar out of the wood” is explained by the fact that the boar usually roots up the earth in search of roots for food, and thus damages trees in forests and greatly harms cultivated soil.
(See Swine.) Since the Mohammedans abstain from eating pork, just as in antiquity the Egyptians, Arabians, and Phoenicians did, wild boars are found in great numbers in certain parts of the Levant, and are especially abundant in the jungles of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. In Mesopotamia they are found in the closest proximity to various settlements. A depiction of a wild boar with its young among the reeds has been especially well and accurately preserved on an ancient stone slab brought to England from Kouyunjik.
has always been reckoned by the Church as apocryphal, and evidently constitutes a work of a later period. It is remarkable that each of the three most important religious epochs in Old and New Testament history is marked by a miraculous instance of translation to heaven: thus, that of the patriarchal Church in the person of Enoch, that of the Jewish Church in the person of the prophet Elijah, and that of the Christian Church in the wondrous event of the Ascension into heaven of the Lord Jesus Christ, the Author of our salvation, and of His Most Pure Mother, the Ever-Virgin Mary, as pious tradition has preserved it in the Christian Church.
—the first among the books of the Minor Prophets. It consists of fourteen chapters and is found without alteration in all ancient manuscripts and complete translations of the Old Testament. Its recognition as inspired by the Hebrew synagogue is confirmed by New Testament writers. Hosea 11:1 is quoted in Matthew 2:15 as spoken by the prophet concerning the Lord. The Lord Himself twice refers to Hosea, in Matthew 9:13 and 12:7. Paul names him in Romans 9:25–26, and Peter clearly alludes to him in 1 Peter 2:10. The book may be dated between 786 and 726 BC. Its first three chapters describe symbolic actions; the remaining eleven consist chiefly of prophecies.
consists of forty-two chapters and belongs to the didactic books, for it teaches patience in affliction. In the source's order of Old Testament books it stands between Esther and Psalms; in Hebrew Bibles, between Proverbs and the Song of Songs; and in Syriac Bibles, between Deuteronomy and Joshua. Its contents may be outlined as follows:
belongs to the historical books of the Old Testament. It contains twenty-four chapters and may be divided into three parts: chapters 1-12, the conquest of Canaan; chapters 13-22, the division of the Promised Land among Israel's tribes; and chapters 23-24, Joshua's final acts and death. The source follows the traditional view that Joshua himself wrote the book, except for the account of his death and burial, which was added later.
The Book of Nehemiah
, consisting of thirteen chapters, was written by him himself and contains his history and deeds, such as: his undertaking of the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem, the rooting out of certain abuses that had crept into the assembled community of the Jews, and so on.
— does not exist in Hebrew, but was translated from the Greek, and contains five chapters. This book is joined with the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah, as an appendix to it, and is reckoned by the Church Fathers as one book with it. It was written for the purpose of showing the Jews that all their calamities, such as the Babylonian captivity and the burning of Jerusalem, were sent upon them for the sins of their fathers and of themselves, in order to move them to repentance and to comfort them with the promise of temporal and eternal freedom.
The text of this book, full of Hebraisms, serves as clear proof that the book was originally written in the Hebrew language. It is mentioned in the Apostolic Constitutions, where it is said that the Jews read it on the Day of Atonement, lamenting the desolation of the land of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. If it is not mentioned by many of the Church Fathers, this is undoubtedly because it was usually counted as one with the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah. The book of the prophet contains a remarkable prophecy of the new glory of the spiritual Jerusalem, whose children shall be gathered from the west of the sun to the east by the word of the Holy One (Baruch 5:5).
, consisting of 14 chapters, and written by the prophet Daniel himself, is placed in the Hebrew text among the Ketuvim (Writings), that is, among the writings whose distinguishing character is their divine origin, rather than in the canon of the prophetic books, and Sirach makes no mention of it; but notwithstanding this, it has always been regarded as a truly canonical, sacred book, both among the Jews and among Christians. The clearest traces of the existence of this book date to Maccabean times (1 Macc. 2:59, 60); the circumstance that this prophetic book was shown to Alexander of Macedon, when he took Jerusalem and entered it (332 B.C.), and that it contains the prophecy of Daniel that the Greek king would overthrow the Persian kingdom (Josephus, Antiquities, Book 11, ch. 8, §5), as well as peculiarities of language corresponding to the period of the Babylonian captivity — all this presents undoubted evidence of the authenticity of the book of Daniel.
It is written partly in Hebrew and partly in pure Chaldean [Aramaic]. As for verses 24–90 of the third chapter, and the whole of chapters 13 and 14, as found both in the Slavonic Bible and in the Vulgate, these passages are found neither in the Hebrew nor in the Chaldean — they exist only in Greek. A distinctive feature of Daniel’s prophecies is that he not only foretold the future, but indicated the very time at which his prophecies were to be fulfilled, as, for example, the prophecy of the seventy weeks (9:24–27).
Here is this remarkable prophecy: “Seventy weeks are determined upon thy people and upon thy holy city, to finish the transgression, and to make an end of sins, and to make reconciliation for iniquity, and to bring in everlasting righteousness, and to seal up the vision and prophecy, and to anoint the most Holy” (9:24). This prophecy, in which the coming of the Savior and His death on the cross, and the destruction of the Temple and Jerusalem that followed it, and the cessation of the Old Testament sacrifices, were foretold, was fulfilled in due time with astonishing, literal precision. In the Slavonic and Russian Bibles, Daniel is not infrequently called, among other things, “a man greatly beloved.”
consists of sixty-six chapters and may be divided into five parts. The first twelve chapters contain, among other things, five prophecies against the Jews and Israelites. The following chapters, 13-23, contain eight prophecies concerning the fate of foreign nations whose fortunes were connected with those of the Jews, such as the Babylonians, Philistines, Moabites, Syrians, and others. Chapters 24-35 chiefly depict the punishments that were to come upon the Jews and the enemies of Christ's Church.
Chapters 36-39 relate, among other things, events contemporary with the prophet. Finally, the remaining chapters, 40-66, contain chiefly prophecies of the Messiah's appearance in the flesh, the various events of His life, and the fortunes of His kingdom. The memory of the prophet of God Isaiah is celebrated by the Orthodox Church on May 8.
The Book of the Prophet Joel
consists of three chapters. Among its prophecies, the prophecy of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, fulfilled on the day of Pentecost, is especially notable: 'I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh' (Joel 2:28-32), which is also cited in Acts 2:16-21.
consists, as noted above, of four chapters. Its contents were described in the preceding article. Jonah himself may have written the book, though this has not been positively proved, and the precise time of composition is likewise unknown. Some have thought that it was written after the Babylonian captivity, but sufficient evidence for that view was not available to the source.
, consisting of 4 chapters, contains chiefly severe denunciations of the sins and iniquities of the Jewish people, and solemn predictions of the coming of the Messiah and of the preparation of His way by the preaching of John the Baptist. Truly, his prophecy is, as it were, a voice crying in the wilderness: “Prepare ye the way of the LORD” (Matt 3:3). In particular this book sternly rebukes the negligence, indifference, and self-love of the Jewish priests — vices that had an extremely bad influence on the people.
The people themselves, though they had only recently returned from the Babylonian captivity and re-entered the land of their fathers, quickly began to fall into moral corruption (Mal 3:5), and for this the prophet utters threats and stern denunciations. But these threats are tempered by comforting promises of the coming of the Messiah, who will punish and purify: “Behold, I will send my messenger, and he shall prepare the way before me: and the LORD, whom ye seek, shall suddenly come to his temple, even the messenger of the covenant, whom ye delight in: behold, he shall come, saith the LORD of hosts.
But who may abide the day of his coming? and who shall stand when he appeareth?” the prophet continues, from the person of God, “for he is like a refiner’s fire, and like fullers’ soap” (Mal 3:1-2). Before the coming of the Redeemer, His forerunner John the Baptist must appear, whom the prophet Malachi calls Elijah: “Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD: and he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers, lest I come and smite the earth with a curse” (4:5-6).
The prophecies of Malachi are frequently referred to in the New Testament by the Lord Himself, and were undoubtedly known to the scribes and to the people (Matt 11:10; 17:10-12; Mark 1:2; Luke 1:16-17 and elsewhere).
consists of seven chapters, and is remarkable for the importance of its prophecies, uttered by the prophet Micah over a period of almost fifty years, from the beginning of the reign of Jotham to the end of the reign of Hezekiah. They may be divided into the following sections: the first section (ch. 1) contains an announcement of punishment for the sins of Israel, a prediction of the approaching fall of the ten tribes’ kingdom, together with an emphatic declaration of the punishment to come also upon the Jews. The second section (ch. 2, 3) contains an indication of the causes for which the wrath of the Lord will overtake Judah and Israel, namely: the general moral corruption of the people, sustained especially by false prophets.
Therefore, he says at the end of this section, Zion shall be plowed as a field, and Jerusalem shall become heaps (III, 12), and the mountain of the house shall become a wooded height. The third section (ch. 4, 5) has as its purpose to show that although threatening calamities will inevitably come upon Judah, yet in the last days the mountain of the house of the Lord shall be established in the top of the mountains, and shall be exalted above the hills; and peoples shall flow unto it, and they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks.
Every man shall sit under his vine and under his fig tree (4:1–5). This prophecy is repeated almost word for word in the Book of the prophet Isaiah (2:2–5). In this section, especially notable is the prophecy concerning Bethlehem as the birthplace of the Messiah: But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel; whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting (5:2).
This prediction, well known to the Jewish Sanhedrin, was the answer given to King Herod, in response to his question to the chief priests and scribes of the people: Where shall Christ be born? (Matt. 2:4–6). The fourth section (ch. 6), like the first two, contains stern rebukes of the people for their impiety. In the fifth section (ch. 7) the prophet laments the calamities of the people, and especially their sins, which brought calamities upon the people. The prophet Micah in his book often expresses himself like his God-inspired contemporary, the prophet Isaiah, who labored among the same people.
The last three verses of the book, in which the prophet expresses the full depth of his feeling, clearly confirm how deeply he cherished in his heart the interests of his countrymen, and how firm was his faith in the mercy of God: Who is a God like unto thee, that pardoneth iniquity? He retaineth not his anger for ever, because he delighteth in mercy. He will turn again, he will have compassion upon us; he will subdue our iniquities (7:18–20).
consists of three short chapters and begins with the following words: The burden of Nineveh. The book of the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite. The chief content of the book is prophecies concerning the ruin and fall of Nineveh, the prediction of the calamities which the Lord will bring upon this city, and the most vivid depiction of the final and complete destruction of this ancient and great city. The figures of speech in it are especially vivid and vivid in relief. In reading this book one might think that the prophet himself was present at the fall of Nineveh, that he saw the very enemies, the horsemen and cavalry, their chariots, the confusion and terror of the siege—so vivid are his depictions!
One image, comparison, and likeness in the book is constantly replaced by another, striking us with their unexpectedness and vividness. The depiction of the Lord as a jealous God and an avenger is marked by particular sublimity (1:2–8).
The Books of Maccabees
— the first, second, and third — belong to the class of apocryphal sacred books. In general they describe the exploits of the Maccabees and the state of the Jewish people in their time.
The breast
of the sacrificial animal, of the wave offering or offering of elevation (Exod. 29:26; Lev. 8:29) — it was generally assigned by the Law as an eternal portion to the High Priest and his sons. It was so called because, in offering it up, the priest waved it before the Lord.
(the word of judgment) (Ex. 28:4, Lev. 8:8 and others)—a special garment worn on the breast of the high priest, with twelve various precious stones, on which were engraved the names of the twelve tribes of the sons of Israel (Ex. 28:15–30). The rings, chains, and other adornments which fastened the breastplate to the ephod were made of gold. The high priest was required to bear the names of the tribes of the sons of Israel on the breastplate over his heart, for a continual memorial of them before the Lord (Ex. 28:29, 30).
It was also called the breastplate of judgment (28:15), perhaps also because it was worn upon his breast by the high priest, so exalted a person, who was to be a source of righteousness and judgment for the Jewish church, and whose decisions, by divine inspiration, were always to be clear, just, and binding upon the Jews.
(2 Chron. 4:2–6, 1 Kings 7:23, 24)—this was an enormous bronze vessel, resembling in shape a six-petaled lily, and constructed for the Temple of Solomon. It was appointed for the priests, that they might wash their hands and feet in it before entering the sanctuary and ascending to the altar. This vessel, as noted above, was of enormous dimensions. It measured from one brim to the other ten cubits (that is, six arshins and nine vershoks), in height five cubits (three arshins and four and a half vershoks), in circumference thirty cubits (nineteen arshins and eleven vershoks), and it held within it two thousand baths of water (two hundred nine and a half of our barrels).
In the book of Numbers (21:9) it is related that when the Israelites were being bitten by venomous serpents in the wilderness for murmuring against God and Moses, Moses received a command from God to make a serpent of bronze and set it up on a pole, so that anyone bitten who looked upon it would remain alive.
(Deut. 14:5) — a cloven-hoofed ruminant animal, permitted to the Israelites for food and forming part of the provisions for Solomon’s table (1 Kings 4:23). The buffalo, together with the related yak, aurochs, and bison, and the domestic ox, belongs to the family of bovines. The buffalo differs from the domestic ox in the greater size of its body, the thickness of its horns, and its greater fondness for water, for wooded, marshy, and boggy places. The buffalo is a fierce and dangerous animal.
(Gen. 8:20 [as given]; 22:2; Exod. 29:42, and elsewhere). This was the most common and universal sacrifice among the Hebrews. It is first mentioned in Holy Scripture at the sacrifice offered by Noah upon his coming forth from the ark (Gen. 8:20). It consisted in this, that the entire sacrificial animal was burned, together with all its parts, with the exception of the hide. The details of the offering of this sacrifice, as well as the animals used and their required qualities, are noted above.
It signified that the one offering this sacrifice offered up everything — his whole self, both soul and body — and it was the preeminent foreshadowing of the sacrifice of Christ. For thus the Messiah was one day to offer Himself as a sacrifice for the sins of mankind, for their salvation (Heb. 9:9, 14, and elsewhere).
The Buzite
(Job 32:2, 6) — thus is named Elihu, one of Job’s friends, perhaps from his descent from Ram, or Aram.
The camel
(Hebrew: gamal, “carrier,” “bearer”) (Gen. 13:16 [as given]; Lev. 11:4; Job 1:3; Exod. [as given] 10:6; Matt. 23:24, and elsewhere) — a cloven-hoofed, ruminant, mammalian animal, whose flesh was forbidden to the Hebrews for food (Lev. 11:4; Deut. 14:7).
The caterpillar
(Joel 1:4; Amos 4:9) — one of the forms of the locust, without wings. See Locust.
was written by James for Jewish Christians living in the Dispersion, that is, outside Jerusalem (Jas 1:1; 2:1, 7; 5:7). It undoubtedly appeared shortly before the apostle's death and was written in Jerusalem, or at least in Palestine, since James is not known ever to have left that country. The whole epistle consists of five chapters. Almost all interpreters of Holy Scripture have remarked upon the elegance and beauty of its style. Its comparative freedom from Hebraisms is noteworthy, and it is wholly permeated by an elevated doctrinal and moral character (Winer, Alford, and others).
Its concluding and deeply exalted words are: 'Let him know, that he which converteth the sinner from the error of his way shall save a soul from death, and shall hide a multitude of sins' (Jas 5:20). Tradition says that after His Resurrection the Lord imparted a special gift of knowledge to James the Just, John, and Peter; they passed it on to the other apostles, and the others to the seventy disciples.
The enemies of our salvation, indicated in Holy Scripture, are: a) the world that surrounds us; b) the flesh and its sinful lusts; c) our chief enemy — the devil (John 16:33; 1 John 2:15, 16; 5:4, 5; James 4:4; Rom. 7:14–23; 1 Pet. 2:11; Gal. 5:17; Col. 3:5, and others). The apostle Paul indicates the whole armor for the battle against the enemies of our salvation in the following words: believers must gird their loins with truth and put on the breastplate of righteousness; shod their feet with the preparation of the gospel of peace; take the shield of faith, wherewith one may quench all the fiery darts of the wicked; take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God, and finally pray always with all prayer and supplication in the Spirit (Eph. 6:13, 18).
The City of David
(the city of David) (2 Sam. 5:7) — this was the name given to the fortress on Mount Zion, after its conquest by David from the Jebusites (1 Kings 8:1).
(Luke 1:39) — the city in which Zacharias, father of the Forerunner, lived. Here, to the house of Zacharias, the Most Holy Virgin Mary went immediately after the Annunciation. Here she was met by her kinswoman Elizabeth, wife of Zacharias, and here she spent about three months after the appearance to her of the Archangel Gabriel (Luke 1:40–55); finally, here John the Forerunner was born and spent his childhood (57–80). This city is undoubtedly the same one that in the Old Testament is called a city appointed for the dwelling of sacred persons, and in the book of Joshua is called Juttah (15:55; 21:16).
At present, on its site stands the small village of Yutta, to the south of Jerusalem, somewhat further than Hebron. In it live up to 500 Muslim Arabs, and it is indeed situated in an extensive mountain hollow, on the lower slope of the hills, in the hill country, as St. Luke the Evangelist says of it (Luke 1:39).
(Ex. 13:21). When the Israelites went out of Egypt with Pharaoh’s permission and entered the wilderness of Arabia, the LORD went before them by day in a pillar of cloud, showing them the way. By day the pillar resembled a dark, heavy cloud, and by night a bright and flaming one, like fire. Some think that there were two clouds: one to overshadow them, and the other to light the way. It also served as a sign for halting and for setting out again on the march (Num. 9:17-23). The cloud served as the customary symbol of the presence of God among His people.
It often rested over the mercy seat of the Ark of the Covenant, or filled the Tabernacle of the congregation. When Isaiah beheld in vision the glory of God in His temple, the house was filled with smoke, or a thick cloud (Is. 6:4). When God the Father testified concerning His Son on the mount of the Transfiguration, “a bright cloud overshadowed them” (Matt. 17:5). The prophet Isaiah foretells the presence of God in the Church for all
(Song 6:13[cited in the source as 7:1]). Manaim, or Mahanaim, a city in Gilead, lying north of the brook Jabbok, on the other side of the Jordan. The name of the city signifies “two camps,” or “two hosts,” since Jacob, on his return from Mesopotamia, met here the hosts of angels. Interpreters of the Bible give various explanations of the expression “the company of Mahanaim” in the Song of Songs. Some find in it a reference to the choirs, or hosts, of angels that appeared to Jacob at Mahanaim.
Others think that in memory of this appearance of the angelic hosts to Jacob, solemn dances took place at Mahanaim, a city renowned for them. Both opinions seem to have a certain degree of plausibility.
The cormorant.
See Cuckoo.
(Jer. 32:2), otherwise the court of the prison — was located in the royal palace, with a corner tower looking out onto the palace courtyard. Here was quartered the royal palace guard, and it also served as a place of confinement for nobles and other distinguished persons, as, for example, the prophet Jeremiah, in the days of King Zedekiah (Jer. 32:1–3).
The courtyard
mentioned by the Evangelist Luke (22:55) was located at the house of the high priest Caiaphas, and in all likelihood was an enclosed but open space, situated considerably lower than the rooms of the lower floor.
(in Syriac: the wise) (Ezra 4:9) — the name of a people originally dwelling within the domains of Assyria, and afterward of the Persian empire, whose settlers, at the time of the Assyrian kingdom’s conquest of Israel, were resettled in Samaria. By this name is generally understood the Dahae of Herodotus, a pastoral tribe of Persia, dwelling to the southeast of the Caspian Sea, whose designation, it appears, is preserved to this day in the name of the Caucasian region of Dagestan. Some more recent philologists, however, derive from it the present-day Danes.
A Persian oval gold coin, bearing the image of the king, crowned, kneeling, and holding a bow in his left hand and a scepter or spear in his right, which was in circulation among the Hebrews after the captivity, in place of the sacred shekel, as the Temple tax. In value it was equal to 20 silver Attic drachmas, or one Hebrew shekel (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70), and weighed about half an ounce of pure gold. This coin took its name, it is thought, from the fact that it was first struck by Darius Hystaspes, king of Persia.
(Lev. 16:2–34; 23:26–32) — the 10th day of the seventh month (by our reckoning, September 10), among the Hebrews associated with fasting and contrition for sin. On this day the high priest offered a sacrifice for himself, having set before the Tabernacle two goats, and by lot slaughtered one of them and offered it as a sin offering for the whole people; he entered several times into the Holy of Holies, offered incense, and sprinkled blood over the mercy seat, and then poured out the blood on the horns of the altar and sprinkled it there as well.
Over the other goat he confessed the sins of the whole people and commanded that it be driven out into the wilderness. The whole sacred rite ended with a burnt offering. This rite undoubtedly served as a foreshadowing of the redemptive, purifying, and propitiatory sacrifice of Christ (Heb. 11:11–14 [as given]).
(2 Macc 15:36) — the fourteenth day of the month Adar, corresponding to our February-March, on which is celebrated the memory of the deliverance of the Jews from the wholesale destruction devised by the malice of Haman. This feast is called the feast of Purim, or of Lots, and by law it is ordained that all Jews keep it for two days, the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar. In more recent synagogue practice the feast is observed with the following rites. On the morning of the first day of the feast the Jews gather in the synagogue and read the book of Esther, and whenever, in the reading of it, the name of Haman occurs, a great commotion arises: everyone, young and old, beats with rattles or a hammer, stamps their feet, in representation of their enemy Haman, as though he were hanged on a gallows, and so on. The eve of this feast is kept by them as a fast, the so-called Fast of Esther, lasting from sunrise to sunset (Esth 9).
(See Biblical Chronology.) In Holy Scripture various hours of the day are mentioned, such as: a) Dawn — the time before the appearance of the sun. At this time the Lord rose (Mark 16:2; Matt. 28:1); b) Sunrise (2 Sam. 23:4 [as given]); c) the heat of the day (Gen. 18:1) — about 9 o’clock in the morning, the hottest time of day; d) noon (Gen. 43:16); e) the cool of the day — the time before sunset (Gen. 3:8). The Persians to this day call this part of the day by such a name; f) evening.
The Hebrews reckoned two evenings; the first began around the third hour, and the second around the fifth hour in the afternoon. The Savior gave up the ghost on the cross at the beginning of the first evening, and was taken down from the cross at the beginning of the second. The difference between the longest day (June 21 or 22) and the shortest day (December 21 or 22) in Palestine amounts to four hours and several minutes. The first lasts about 14 hours and 10 minutes, and the second 9 hours and 50 minutes.
(Matt. 4:25; Mark 5:20) — is generally described as a region of the half-tribe of Manasseh, east of the Jordan. Geographers generally agree that Scythopolis was the chief of the 10 cities of this region, and only it lay west of the Jordan; that Hippos, Gadara, Dion, Pella, Gerasa, or Gergesa, Philadelphia, and Raphana, or Rhaphon, made up seven of the remaining nine cities, and the remaining two were Kanatha and Damascus. These cities formed a kind of league, perhaps similar to the former Hanseatic cities, and enjoyed special privileges.
During the earthly life of the Lord they were inhabited chiefly by foreigners (Greeks). This explains the circumstance that the Gergesenes kept large herds of swine (Matt. 8:30–33), an occupation forbidden by Hebrew law. Of all these cities, now lying in desolation, only Damascus, like an oasis in the desert, remains to this day a populous and flourishing city. The word “Decapolis” occurs in Holy Scripture, and specifically in the New Testament, only three times: Matt. 4:25; Mark 5:20; 7:31.
(Deut. 12:15, Ps. 18:33, Is. 35:6)—one of the beautiful and gentle animals, as necessary to the inhabitants of the far North as the camel is to the hot countries of Africa. The deer’s native lands are the northern regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America [as printed]. The reindeer reaches an age of up to sixteen years. The female bears from one to two young in the summer, nurses them with her own milk, and leaves them only for lack of grass (Jer. 14:5). As an animal that chews the cud and has a cloven hoof, the deer is reckoned a clean animal (Deut. 12:15).
By the nature of its constitution and its hot temperament, in eastern countries it often suffers from intense thirst. It is with this thirst of the deer, and its need for refreshment, that King David,
(from Greek: slanderer, seducer) — evil angels are called devils on account of their cunning and their effort to seduce people and instill in them false thoughts and evil desires. “Ye are of your father the devil,” the Lord said to the unbelieving Jews, “and the lusts of your father ye will do. He was a murderer from the beginning, and abode not in the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he speaketh a lie, he speaketh of his own: for he is a liar, and the father of it” (John 8:44).
Sometimes people, too, on account of the evil qualities of their souls, are called “devil,” “children of the devil,” and likewise “Satan” (John 6:70; 8:44; 1 John 3:10).
(Acts 28:11), otherwise Castor and Pollux — so, in pagan mythology, were called the twin sons of Jupiter and Leda. They were regarded as deities who protected sailors, supposedly having received from Neptune special power over wind and waves, and were thought to give particular aid during sea storms and shipwrecks. For this reason their images were often carved or painted on the bows of ships. The Alexandrian ship on which St. Paul the Apostle sailed from the island of Malta to Italy undoubtedly bore such an image, and accordingly took its name from them: the Dioscuri.
(Gen. 8:9) — a clean bird according to the Law of Moses, frequently mentioned in Holy Scripture. In the wild state, doves generally live in the clefts of rocks, beneath the shelter of cliffs (Song of Songs 2:14; Jer. 48:28); they are noted for their purity, are without malice, and do not resist their enemies; for this reason the Savior commanded His followers: “be ye wise as serpents, and harmless as doves” (Matt. 10:16). Also notable is their attachment to one another, so that when one of them flies away or dies, the others remaining mourn their loss, as it were, with plaintive cooing.
This cooing of doves is frequently referred to in the prophetic books (Ps. 38 [37]:14 [as given]; Ezek. 7:16; Nah. 2:7). In Holy Scripture there are also not a few references to the dove’s tenderness, purity, and love (Ps. 74 [73]:19; Song of Songs 1:15; 2:14; 4:1; 5:2; 6:9). The Holy Spirit descended upon the Savior at His baptism in the form of a dove (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32).
The drink offering.
See Sacrificial Libation.
The Dung Gate, or Refuse Gate
(Neh. 3:14, 12:31). This gate is mentioned twice in the Book of Nehemiah. It was located on the south side of Jerusalem, and was so called, probably, because various refuse of the city was carried out through it.
The word “east” is used in Palestine generally with reference to a distant country, lying in an eastward direction relative to Palestine (Ps. 45 [44]:11 [as given]). In the prophet Isaiah (2:6) the East is called the chief place of divination and other similar hidden arts. In Holy Scripture the Lord Jesus Christ is called the “Dayspring” [the East].
The Epistle of Jeremiah to the Captives Being Led to Babylon
is also numbered among the prophet's writings; it is absent, however, from the Hebrew Bible and was translated from Greek. In the Vulgate it forms the final chapter of Baruch; in the Septuagint it stands separately after Lamentations and consists of one chapter of seventy-two verses.
The evening sacrifice
— in the Church of the Old Testament (Ps. 141 [140]:2). See Sacrifice.
The Existing One (He Who Is)
—a divine title expressing God’s self-existence, eternity, and immutability. It reflects the Greek rendering of God’s words to Moses, “I AM THAT I AM” (Exod. 3:14). See Jehovah.
Through the fall humanity lost its original perfection and blessed dwelling, and the faculties of the soul became disordered. Nevertheless, traces of the divine image remained: spiritual nature, moral awareness, and a measure of free choice were not destroyed (Gen. 9:6; Rom. 1:20; 2:14-15; 7:16-18). Left to itself, fallen humanity could not restore itself. In His boundless goodness God gave the supreme means of salvation in His only-begotten Son, Jesus Christ. In Him the fallen are called back to life, redeemed from sin, renewed, reborn, and sanctified (Ezek. 33:11; Rom. 5:17-19; Eph. 1:4; 2:4-7; 1 John 2:2).
has from the earliest times been ascribed to St. John the Theologian and consists of five chapters. Its style and spirit unmistakably point to Christ's beloved disciple as its writer. Like the other six Catholic Epistles, it is called catholic or general because it was addressed not to one person or one local church, but to believers in all places and times. The source dates it about AD 68. Its purpose is to warn believers against false teachers who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ; to urge all who confess God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ to walk in the light of holiness and love, not in the darkness of sin and lawlessness; and to live in holy fellowship with the brethren, comforting themselves with the hope of eternal blessedness.
(1 Sam. 24:15; 26:20) (Hebrew: parosh) — a small insect, troublesome and vexing to man, since it feeds on his blood, and to this day is found in great abundance in eastern countries, so that Bedouins are often compelled to change their camping places because of them. In the streets and bazaars of Syria they multiply in such quantity that persons of the privileged classes always change their clothing upon returning home from a walk. David compares himself to a flea, as an insignificant insect, out of a feeling of deep humility, in order to make Saul see, in his pursuit of him, something insignificant, not worth great effort.
(2 Sam. 18:6) — a locality originally assigned to the sons of Joseph, being a wooded country (Josh. 17:10, 16), and, it seems, the part of it that remained uncleared was called the forest of Ephraim (1 Sam. 14:25, 26; 2 Kings 1:24 [as given]). Another such locality lay west of the Jordan, near Jabesh-gilead, and is historically notable for the battle between David and Absalom (2 Sam. 18:6), which ended in the destruction of Absalom.
(Exod. 27:3; 1 Sam. 2:13, 14). The ancient Israelites used three-pronged forks for taking pieces of meat out of the pot or kettle, for turning meat on a griddle, and the like. Among the vessels of the altar of sacrifice among the Hebrews, bronze forks were used for this purpose (Exod. 27:3). Besides forks, the Bible also mentions pitchforks [vily], used in field labor (1 Sam. 13:21). Table forks, as at present among the peoples of the East, were entirely unknown to the ancient Hebrews, since in partaking of food they used their fingers directly.
(Matt. 23:5) consisted of purple-blue tassels on the four corners of the outer garment; by the prescription of the Law of Moses (Num. 15:37), they were meant to remind one of the Lord’s commandments. The Pharisees thought that the wider their fringes, the more visible to the people was their piety. The touch, in faith, of the woman with an issue of blood to these tassels on Jesus’s garment healed her sickness (Matt. 9:20). Among the Persians, according to the testimony of travelers, tassels sewn onto outer garments, even at present, serve as an expression of piety on the part of those who have them.
(field of the fuller, the washer) (2 Kings 18:17; Isa. 7:3) was located on the western side, near Jerusalem, along the channel of the upper pool, or reservoir; in this field cloth was usually fulled, washed, and cleaned in the pool, and hung out in the sun for drying. In this field stood king Ahaz at the time when the prophet Isaiah appeared before him with a great sign from the Lord (Isa. 7:1–16). Here, by the aqueduct, on the road of the fuller’s field, stood Rabshakeh with the Assyrian army, threatening conquest and devastation of the land of Judah, which, however, the Lord saved from the proud conqueror, at the prayer of king Hezekiah and the prophet Isaiah (2 Kings 18:17).
(Luke 13:1) — a Jewish sect, which took its name from its leader, Judas the Galilean. It is thought that this sect was formed to oppose the law concerning taxes imposed on the Jews by the Roman government in the year 10 or 12 A.D. Judas and his followers stirred up the people against the Roman government (Acts 5:37) right up to the time of the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. Jewish historians testify that the Galileans shared views and acted in concert with the Pharisees, differing from them, however, in an unyielding love of freedom, maintaining that, on the basis of the words of the book of Deuteronomy (17:15), their only master was the Lord God, and that all the demands of earthly kings were oppressive and unlawful.
The Gate of Benjamin.
See Jerusalem.
The Gate of Naphtali Nephthalim
—one of the gates of the new Jerusalem, mentioned in the Book of the prophet Ezekiel (48:34).
The Gate of the Foundation
(2 Chr 23:5) - a gate in Jerusalem called the Gate of Sur in 2 Kings 11:6.
The gates of Hades
(Matt. 16:18) — a figurative expression, meaning the whole power of the devil or of death (see Gates): “I will build My church,” said the Lord, “and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.”
The gates of Jerusalem.
See Jerusalem.
closely resembles the Second General Epistle of Peter. It consists of one chapter containing twenty-five verses and was written because corrupt persons had appeared who defiled the flesh, rejected authority, and reviled dignities (v. 8). By examples from the Old Testament the epistle warns such ungodly people of God's severe punishment. It is thought to have been written by the apostle Jude before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, toward the end of the first century according to the source's wording, when such people appeared.
, the future resurrection, is to take place at the end of this visible world, which will be transformed by means of fire. It will consist in this, that the souls of the dead will again be united with their former bodies and will be spiritual and immortal. Until the general resurrection, the souls of the righteous are in a state of rest and a foretaste of eternal blessedness, while the souls of sinners are in a foretaste of eternal torment. However, the souls of those who died in the faith, but who did not bring forth fruits worthy of repentance, may be helped by the prayers and almsgiving offered for them by the living, and above all by the offering for them of the bloodless sacrifice of the Body and Blood of Christ.
The Gerrenes
(2 Macc. 13:24). Some understand by this name the inhabitants of the city of Gerrha between Pelusium and Rhinocorura, others — the inhabitants of the city of Gerar, or Harar.
(2 Sam. 21:1) — Hivites, inhabitants of Gibeon, who by cunning succeeded in entering into a covenant with Joshua. They sent envoys to him, who dressed in worn-out clothing and put on worn-out shoes, with dry, moldy bread in their sacks and patched wineskins, and thus deceitfully passed themselves off as foreigners, as it were from a very distant land. To the question, who they were and whence they had come, the envoys answered Joshua: we, your servants, have come from a very distant land, for we have heard much of the Lord your God, of His glory, and we ask to make a covenant with us.
By this false representation they deceived Joshua and the elders, who forgot to inquire of the Lord and, without further thought, made a covenant with them. The treaty was solemnly confirmed by an oath and upheld by Joshua, although the people grumbled when they learned that the supposed travelers from a very distant land belonged to the Canaanites, condemned by God to destruction. However, though out of pious regard for the solemn oath their lives were spared, nevertheless Joshua and the elders determined that they should perform servile duties for all the people in perpetuity, and especially at the Tabernacle, such as: cutting wood and carrying water.
From them later arose a special class of temple servants, known by the name of Nethinim, that is, “the given ones.” Later than this, Saul, out of zeal for the descendants of Israel and Judah, slew many of the Gibeonites and thereby violated the covenant made with them by the Israelites, and the solemn oath before the Lord. This rash act of Saul brought down the wrath of God, which fell heavily upon his house: seven descendants of Saul — two sons and five grandsons, handed over by David to the Gibeonites — were hanged by them at Gibeah, Saul’s city (2 Sam. 21:1–9).
After this, the Gibeonites are not mentioned again in Holy Scripture. Mention is made only of a few persons descended from the Gibeonites, such as, for example, Ishmaiah the Gibeonite, one of David’s thirty mighty men, Melatiah, who helped, together with other Gibeonites, in the restoration of the wall of Jerusalem in the days of Nehemiah (Neh. 3:7), Hananiah the false prophet, the adversary of Jeremiah (Jer. 28:1, 10, 12, and elsewhere); but all these persons, it must be supposed, were not so much descendants of the ancient Hivites as Benjamites born in Gibeon.
(1 Cor. 12, 13, 14) — a special gift of God distinguishing the apostolic Church. To rightly understand this gift, one must distinguish between the gift of tongues bestowed upon the apostles on the day of Pentecost, with the descent upon them of the Holy Spirit in the form of tongues of fire, and the granting of tongues to believers (Acts 2:1–18).
The girding
(Gen. 3:7, Acts 19:12). There is no doubt that this article of clothing among the Hebrews, in form and purpose, closely resembled the aprons and pinafores used at the present day as well.
(clayey) (Gen. 10:16) — one of the Canaanite peoples, whose territory was given by God to the Israelites (Gen. 15:21; Deut. 7:1). Their progenitor is held to be Girgashi, the fifth son of Canaan. From the book of Joshua (24:11) it is evident that the Girgashites lived on the western side of the Jordan. According to the testimony of Josephus, in his time nothing was known of the Girgashites except the one name. In any case, the Girgashites should not be confused with the land of the Gergesenes mentioned by the Evangelist Matthew (8:28).
(inhabitants of a barren, empty land) (1 Sam. 27:8) — according to Gesenius and Dean Stanley, this was a Canaanite tribe occupying the surrounding country, from which, perhaps, the city of Gerizim also took its name. In 1 Samuel (27:8) they, together with the Geshurites and the Amalekites, are reckoned as already ancient inhabitants of this land, that is, of the south of Palestine, from Shur to Egypt. This was a nomadic people, possessing great flocks of sheep, oxen, donkeys, camels, and the like.
The goose
(1 Kings 4:23; Neh. 5:18) — birds, especially fattened ones, by which, with great probability, in the cited passage, geese are meant.
consists of twenty-one chapters and is the fourth of the New Testament's law-giving books. Many place its composition at Ephesus in Asia Minor near the close of the first century. Its chief purpose is that its readers 'might believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; and that believing [they] might have life through his name' (John 20:31). The source observes that the precise year is difficult to establish, citing proposals of 69, before Jerusalem's destruction, and of 97-102 after Christ.
The grass of the field
(Ps. 36 [37]:2) — greenery, green herbage, grass — words that are nearly synonymous. See Grass.
(mountaineer, of the mountain): a) Shammah, son of Agee, the Hararite, is mentioned as one of David’s mighty men (2 Sam. 23:11); b) and c) (2 Sam. 23:33; 1 Chron. 11:34, 35) Shammah the Hararite and Ahiam, son of Sharar the Hararite [as given], are likewise numbered among the mighty men in David’s army.
(Gen. 38:15) — this word, generally applied to an unchaste woman, is used in Holy Scripture broadly to denote the wicked and depraved manner of life of the Israelites, whenever they broke the covenant with God and gave themselves over to idolatry and other vices (Isa. 1:21). That a class of harlots, or unchaste women, existed among the Canaanites, the original inhabitants of Palestine, is evident from the story of Tamar (Gen. 38:15). In the days of the patriarchs and of Moses there were strict laws concerning fornication.
The story of the harlot Rahab (Josh. 2:1; 6:17) proves that the Israelites, upon entering the Promised Land, found this class of women already there. In the days of Solomon two harlot women are mentioned who lived in one house (1 Kings 3:16). In the reign of Hezekiah mention is already made of houses of harlotry (2 Kings 23:7). Distinguished from honest women by a peculiarity of dress, by their dwelling at the gates, by the road (Gen. 38:14), in the streets, in the squares, harlots in early times were content with only a kid for their disgraceful services (Gen. 38:17); but in later times they often acquired great riches (Ezek. 16:33–39).
By their cunning, noisiness, and shamelessness they lured the foolish into their snares (Prov. 7:7–22; 1 Kings 14:22–24). Before the coming of Christ upon earth, depravity had increased to the utmost degree among the Greeks and the Romans, not excluding the Jews as well; for this reason the apostles found it especially necessary to warn believers against fornication and other similar vices.
The Harodite Rudaean
(one from Harod): a) (1 Chron. 11:27) one of David’s mighty men, also called the Hararite; b) another of David’s mighty men, mentioned only in 2 Samuel (23:25).
(Isa. 28:24; Job 39:10) — it is not known what form the harrow took in ancient times in the East. Perhaps it was in the form of a woven lattice, or resembled a rake more than our harrow. On the basis of the words of the prophet Isaiah (28:24, 25), one may think that it consisted, as it still does in Egypt, simply of a strong board, to the two corners of which ropes were tied, into which oxen were harnessed, and in this manner the harrow was dragged over the plowed field, in order to break up the clods of earth; and in order to make it heavier, stones were placed upon it, or the driver himself sat on it.
(Num. 22:41; in the Book of Joshua, 13:17, “Bamoth-baal”) are taken to be one and the same as the city of Bamoth in the land of Moab. In the Book of Numbers (22:41; 33:1, 6, 9) Balaam was brought up onto the high places of Baal so that he might see from there a part of the people of Israel, and Balaam indeed saw them from the heights of Baal, from the summit of the rocks and hills.
(Josh. 17:15; 20:7) lay south of the valley of Jezreel. This name was given to a chain of hills stretching along the southern border of the territory of the tribe of Ephraim. They consist of forested mountain ridges intersected by long and fruitful plains, with the exception, however, of the mountain range lying toward the Jordan, which is very rocky and difficult of ascent.
The hin
(Exod. 29:40; 30:24) — a liquid measure among the Hebrews, equal to 12 of our cups or glasses.
— the third Person of the Most Holy Trinity. He is true God (Acts 5:3, 4), the Giver of life (John 3:5), proceeding from the Father (John 15:26); to Him belongs worship and glorification equal with the Father and the Son (Matt. 28:19); He spoke through the prophets (2 Pet. 1:21) and through the apostles (1 Pet. 1:12); He was revealed to men in a particular manner through His descent upon the apostles in the form of tongues of fire on the fiftieth day after Christ’s Resurrection (Acts 2:3, 4), and is given even now to all true Christians through fervent prayer and the sacraments (Luke 11:13; Titus 3:4–6; 1 Cor. 3:16). The principal and most general gifts of the Holy Spirit, according to the prophet Isaiah, are seven (11:2).
The human soul.
Having formed the first man, Adam, from the earth, God breathed into him the breath of life — that is, a soul, a spiritual and immortal being (Gen. 1:26, 27; 2:7). After a man’s death the soul returns to God who gave it (Eccl. 12:7).
(Sirach 13:18 [as given]) (variegated, spotted) — a nocturnal predatory animal, resembling in appearance, size, and partly also in habits, the wolf. By day it hides in caves, and by night comes out for prey, feeding on all manner of carrion and even digging up corpses from the earth; it is found in Arabia, Syria, Africa, and also in Palestine. The hatred and enmity between the dog and the hyena is especially notable, and has even become proverbial: “What peace hath the hyena with the dog? and what peace hath the rich with the poor?” says Jesus, son of Sirach (13:18 [as given]).
— a place or building specifically designated for the rest and repose of travelers. In the book of Genesis (42:27) the word “malon,” or inn, is derived from a verb meaning “to spend the night,” and thus denotes a place where travelers stopped for the night. The same word is translated by the word “lodging place” in the book of the prophet Isaiah (10:29). Inns undoubtedly were established for travelers, as is evident from the book of the prophet Jeremiah (9:2), where we read of a “lodging place” (malon) of travelers “in the wilderness.” The same word occurs in Joshua (4:3–8) and in 2 Kings (19:23).
The house of Rahab in Jericho, in which the spies sent by Joshua lodged for the night, if it was not an inn, was nevertheless a house where passing travelers could stop or lodge.
was formed as a result of the revolt of the ten tribes, in the reign of Rehoboam, son and successor of Solomon, against his subject Jeroboam, to whom, even in Solomon’s lifetime, this event had been foretold by the prophet Ahijah (1 Kings 11:31-40). Solomon sought to put Jeroboam to death, but he fled to Egypt and remained there until Solomon’s death, whereupon he returned (12:2-3) from Egypt to Shechem. Appearing as a representative of the people, together with an assembly of Israelites, before the new king, he demanded of him relief from the taxes laid upon the people by Solomon; and when Rehoboam refused to grant this demand, the ten tribes thereupon rebelled against him and made Jeroboam king.
Only two tribes, Judah and Benjamin, remained loyal to Rehoboam. Thus two kingdoms were formed: Israel and Judah. Fearing lest the house of David should once again reign over all Israel, Jeroboam introduced idolatry and pagan rites into the kingdom of Israel. This took place in the year 980 B.C. The original seat of the kingdom of Israel was the city of Shechem, and afterward Jeroboam moved it to Samaria. It had 18 successive rulers, and the kingdom of Israel endured for 254 years. It fell with the taking of Samaria by Shalmaneser in the year 721 B.C.
- a book of five chapters - is truly the most sublime and at the same time most moving song of lamentation, full of the tenderest and most plaintive groanings over Jerusalem, once flourishing and most glorious, queen of all cities and daughter of Zion, now abandoned by all, mourning her solitude, deprived of friends, betrayed by those near her, pleading vainly for help, and possessing not one comforter. The prophet saw with his own eyes every disaster that befell this once glorious city and people; he lived through and suffered them all.
In bitter tears and heart-rending lamentation he pours out his soul upon the ruins of Jerusalem. For all who are afflicted by sorrow and loss, Lamentations can serve as a most beautiful source of consolation and a most faithful mirror of repentance. A few verses are enough to show the full force of the prophet's inward grief and heartfelt lamentation: 'How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people! how is she become as a widow!... She weepeth sore in the night, and her tears are on her cheeks.… The ways of Zion do mourn, because none come to the solemn feasts: all her gates are desolate.… And from the daughter of Zion all her beauty is departed.… Is it nothing to you, all ye that pass by?
behold, and see if there be any sorrow like unto my sorrow, which is done unto me, wherewith the LORD hath afflicted me in the day of his fierce anger. How is the gold become dim! how is the most fine gold changed! the stones of the sanctuary are poured out in the top of every street. They that did feed delicately are desolate in the streets: they that were brought up in scarlet embrace dunghills. Remember, O LORD, what is come upon us: consider, and behold our reproach. Turn thou us unto thee, O LORD, and we shall be turned; renew our days as of old. But thou hast utterly rejected us; thou art very wroth against us' (Lam 1:1-2, 4, 6, 12; 4:1, 5; 5:1, 21-22).
The land of Gebal
(Philistine) (Josh. 13:5) — an extensive plain, which in the time of Joshua was assigned as an inheritance to the Israelites, but remained yet unconquered.
The land of Geshur
(Josh. 13:2) is mentioned together with the districts of the Philistines and together with the Girzites and the Amalekites, whom David attacked during his residence at Ziklag (1 Sam. 27:8).
The land of Hamath
(1 Macc. 12:25) — a region in Syria, with its chief city Hamath, on the river Orontes, at the northern foot of Mount Lebanon, still known today by this name.
The land of the Gergesenes
is mentioned by the Evangelist Matthew (8:28) and is identical with the land of the Gadarenes.
The land of the Gergesenes
(Matt. 8:28), mentioned only by the Evangelist Matthew in the cited passage, took its name from the city of Gergesa, or Gerasa, on the eastern side of the Jordan in Perea, and is identical with the land of the Gadarenes (Mark 5:1; Luke 8:26).
(John 13:2, 4; 1 Cor. 11:20) — the supper performed by the Lord in Jerusalem before His sufferings, at which He instituted the holy sacrament of Communion. In Holy Scripture it is called the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor. 11:20), the Lord’s Table (1 Cor. 10:21), the communion of the Body and Blood of the Lord (1 Cor. 10:16), the breaking of bread (Acts 2:42). In the early Church it was given the name Eucharist. The institution of the sacrament of Communion was preceded by the Lord’s washing of His disciples’ feet (John 13:1–20), the indication and departure of the betrayer (John 13:21–32), and only then the institution itself of the sacrament of Communion (see Communion).
(otherwise called the pard) (Isa. 11:6; Jer. 5:6; Rev. 13:2) — a predatory animal of the cat family, thought to have been especially widespread in Bible lands, since it is often mentioned by Holy Scripture. The Hebrew name for leopard is nimrah; Beth-nimrah (Num. 32:36) means “dwelling of leopards,” and in the Song of Songs mention is made of the “mountains of leopards” (Song 4:8). The prophets often make reference to the traits and character of leopards, their manner of lying in wait for their prey (Jer. 5:6), the swiftness of their movements (Hab. 1:8), their bloodthirstiness and ferocity (Isa. 11:6); and in the Book of Daniel (7:6) the leopard is represented as an emblem of power.
What could be more beautiful than the following scriptural allusions to this predatory animal: “Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots?” (Jer. 13:23); or — “the leopard shall lie down with the kid” (Isa. 11:6 [as given]); or — “a leopard shall watch over their cities” (Jer. 5:6). For this reason the Antichrist, together with his followers and adherents, is compared in the Revelation of St. John to this bloodthirsty, well-known predatory beast (Rev. 13:2). The Syrian leopard is still called by the natives, in biblical fashion, by the word nimr. With the destruction of the forests on Lebanon, leopards seem to have withdrawn especially to the north of Syria.
(Num. 15:5; 28:7, 8, 10, and so on; 2 Kings 16:13) — an Old Testament rite, consisting in the pouring of grape wine around the altar, at its foot. “He (that is, the high priest),” says Jesus the son of Sirach concerning this rite, which of course had a deep, mysterious meaning, as did all the sacrifices of the Old Testament, “stretched out his hand to the sacrificial cup, and poured of the blood of the grape, and poured it out at the foot of the altar, a sweet-smelling savor unto the most high King of all” (Sirach 50:15).
(Gen. 2:4; Exod. 3:4–16, and elsewhere) — one of the names of God, expressed in Hebrew by the word Jehovah, and among the LXX for the most part by the word Kyrios, and everywhere denoting the true God. It is known that the Hebrews from ancient times considered the name Jehovah so sacred and mysterious that they feared to pronounce it, and used in its place, in their books, the word Adonai, that is, Master, Lord, instead of Jehovah. According to Jewish tradition, this name was used only by the priests and high priests in the Temple, but after the death of Simon the Just (d.
292 B.C.) it was replaced in the Temple as well by the word Adonai. Be that as it may, in the LXX (around 271 B.C.) the word Kyrios — Lord — already stands constantly in place of Jehovah. Introduced in this way almost 300 years before Christ, it was thereafter sanctified by constant use in the New Testament and by the Lord Himself and the apostles, as the proper name of God, belonging to Him as the true God. (See God.)
(Rev. 1:10) has been celebrated since the time of Christ’s Resurrection. In the book of Acts, mention is made of a gathering of the disciples, that is, of Christians, “upon the first day of the week,” that is, on the first day of the week, or Sunday, “to break bread,” that is, to celebrate the sacrament of the Eucharist (Acts 20:7). The Apostle and Evangelist John likewise mentions the “Lord’s Day,” or Sunday (Rev. 1:10).
(Jude 1:12; 1 Cor. 11:20–27) — a common table or meal, in the early Church, prepared from the voluntary offerings of the believers. It was usually held after the celebration of the sacrament of the Eucharist. The food for the love-feast was consecrated beforehand during the divine service. It usually consisted of vegetables, fish, meat, and flour dishes; wine, too, was not excluded from the offerings. The love-feast usually began with prayer and the washing of hands; during it psalms and other sacred songs were sung, passages from Holy Scripture were read and explained; and at its conclusion a monetary collection was taken for the poor, widows, orphans, and other unfortunates.
Everything concluded with prayer and a brotherly kiss. It should be noted that open sinners and those undergoing public penance, as well as catechumens, were not admitted to participate in the love-feast. Love-feasts, at least in the beginning, were very widespread, especially in Jerusalem, Troas, Corinth, and elsewhere.
— a national stringed instrument of the Hebrews, undoubtedly one of the first musical instruments with which man became acquainted. The invention of the lyre, in the book of Genesis (4:21), is attributed, as is the invention of the pipe, to Jubal, son of Lamech. Among the Hebrews the kinnor (lyre) served from the deepest antiquity chiefly for the expression of joy and gladness (Gen. 31:27; Job 21:12, and elsewhere). David was especially skilled in playing the lyre (1 Sam. 16:17–23).
“And David took an harp, and played,” the sacred historian says, “and there was refreshment to Saul, and the evil spirit departed from him” (v. 23). Religious (1 Kings 10:12) and civic celebrations among the Hebrews were also accompanied by playing the lyre. To the accompaniment of the kinnor, the greater part of the psalms and hymns of praise among the Hebrews were sung (Ps. 33 [32]:2; 43 [42]:4, and elsewhere). As to the outward form of the lyre, opinions differ considerably. Some give it the form of the modern harp, others maintain that it resembled the Greek letter delta (Δ).
Josephus asserts that it had ten strings, and that it was played with the aid of a plectrum; others increase the number of strings of the kinnor to 24 and even to 47.
(Matt. 2:1) — learned men, possessed of extensive knowledge of the hidden powers of nature, who occupied themselves with the observation of the heavenly bodies and the like. They were chiefly Persians, but were also found in Arabia and other countries of the East, such as, for example, the Egyptian magicians mentioned in the days of Joseph and Moses (Gen. 41:8; Exod. 7:11), Balaam among the Midianites (Num. 22:23 [as given]), the Persian magi and wise men mentioned in Daniel (Dan. 2:4), and finally the magi, or wise men, who, on account of the extraordinary star observed by them in the East, made the journey to Bethlehem to worship the divine Infant Savior (Matt. 2:1, 2), since ancient prophecies had led the magi to expect the birth of the Savior of the world in the East. Science and philosophy attain their true, exalted significance and proper power only when they bow obediently and humbly at the feet of Jesus.
However, from ancient times the words “magi,” “sorcerers,” or “wise men” were also taken in a bad sense, and connected with them were notions of the interpretation of dreams, sorcery, divination, and the like. Such were the Egyptian magicians, who somewhat imitated the miracles performed by Moses and Aaron, and who are mentioned in the days of Joseph and Moses (Gen. 41:8; Exod. 7:11). Against sorcery, Holy Scripture speaks in many places, and it is strictly forbidden both in the Old and in the New Testament (Lev. 19:26, 31; 20:6, 27; 1 Sam. 28:3, 4–14; Acts 8:9–11; 13:6–12; 19:13–16).
The mallet
(Jer. 51:20) was evidently one of the terrible weapons of war, but no information about its construction and manner of use has come down to us. Perhaps it represented a kind of halberd or mace, made of wood and studded with iron or bronze, with a sword at its end. The Egyptian
The Mallothians
(2 Macc 4:30) — inhabitants of the city of Mallos, or Mallus, in Cilicia, who rose up together with the inhabitants of Tarsus against Antiochus Epiphanes, because he had given their city as a gift to his concubine Antiochis.
(Ex. 39:28), or headbands (Ex. 28:40), formed, it appears, part only of the vestments of the high priest and the priests. The high priest’s mitre constituted a majestic headdress, made of fine linen and beautifully arranged in folds. On the front part of the mitre was the following significant inscription: Holiness to the LORD. Headbands, as may be seen from the Book of Isaiah (3:22), formed part of women’s clothing; but it remains uncertain to this day of what material the Hebrew headbands were made, or what the pattern was by which they were made, and the manner in which they were worn.
Eastern women to this day take particular pride in their turbans, or headwraps. In the opinion of some, the word used in the cited passage of the Book of the prophet Isaiah signifies a thin golden or silver disk forming a glittering ornament for the head. References to foreign, or Greek and Roman, headdresses occur rarely in Holy Scripture.
The Mount of Offense
(2 Kings 23:13) — the southern part of the elevation of the Mount of Olives, lying to the east of Jerusalem. Here, it is supposed, lay the idol shrines built by Solomon for his pagan wives (1 Kings 11:7).
The mountains of Hermon.
See Hermon.
The Nehelamite
(strong, mighty) (Jer. 29:24, 31, 32)—the name of one of the false prophets in the days of Nehemiah.
(Rev. 2:6-15)—an ancient sect, whose immoral teaching is severely denounced in Holy Scripture. Some have supposed that this name is symbolic, that “Nicolas,” in its literal meaning, corresponds to “Balaam,” and that by it are meant all false teachers like Balaam, drawing people into idolatry and impurity.
The Nile
(Jer. 2:18)—the greatest river in Egypt and in all Africa.
The offering of atonement.
See Day of Atonement.
The offering of jealousy.
See Jealousy.
(Lev. 11:13, Deut. 14:12)—one of the birds of prey classed as unclean in the Law of Moses. This bird (Falco haliaeetus, Linnaeus) may properly be called fish-eating, and is therefore found only near seas, lakes, rivers, and, in general, all waters abounding in fish. Various species of the osprey are frequently found in almost all parts of the world.
(Isa. 1:3) — a well-known domestic animal of the ruminant kind, clean by the Law of Moses, strong, hardy, and very useful in agricultural labors; it once formed a very valuable article of wealth of the ancient patriarchs (Gen. 24:35; Job 1:3). Oxen were used for tilling the ground (Deut. 22:10; 1 Sam. 14:14; 1 Kings 19:19), for threshing grain (Deut. 25:4; Hos. 10:11), for transporting burdens (Num. 7:3; 1 Chron. 6:7 [as given]). Beef was used for food (Deut. 14:4), and oxen were also used for sacrifice.
In ox horns the Hebrews kept oil (1 Sam. 16:1–13; 1 Kings 1:39). When oxen were at work, it was forbidden to prevent them from plucking at ears of grain: “Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn,” it says in the Law of Moses (Deut. 25:4; 1 Cor. 9:9). In general, during agricultural labors, oxen were fed abundantly (Isa. 30:24). In the Gospel of Luke (14:19) we read of the testing of oxen — this is a task still performed in the East with great precision and ceremony to this day.
The expression of the prophet Jeremiah (31:18): “I was chastised, as an untrained bull,” requires no special explanation. The faithfulness and attachment of oxen to their master is pointed to by the prophet Isaiah, rebuking the Jews for their unfaithfulness to God: “the ox knoweth his owner”… and so on (Isa. 1:3). Reference to the ferocity of the fat bulls of Bashan is found in the Book of Psalms (Ps. 22 [21]:12 [13]). They also serve as an image, or symbol, of some powerful adversary or rival (Deut. 33:17).
, or offering of salvation (Lev. 3:1) — threefold: the offering of praise, or thanksgiving (Lev. 7:12), the offering of a vow, and finally the freewill offering (Lev. 7:16). For this sacrifice any unblemished cattle, large or small, and of either sex, could be used (Lev. 3:1, 6; 9:4 [as given]). Pigeons are nowhere mentioned in connection with peace offerings. The ritual acts performed over this sacrifice, up to the sprinkling of blood, resemble those of the burnt offering (Lev. 3:2; 8:13 [as given]).
Then, from the sacrificial animal, the fatty inward parts were removed, the same as in the sin offering, and were burned on the altar, laid on top of the burnt offering (Lev. 3:3–5, 9–11, 14–16; 9:18 [as given]). Next the breast and the right shoulder were removed; the latter was left to the officiating priest, while the former was offered to Jehovah through the rite of waving (see Wave Offering and Heave Offering before the LORD). The remaining parts of the animal were given to the one who had brought the sacrifice, and from them was made a sacrificial feast, in which all members of his household could take part, after prior levitical purification (Lev. 7:15–18, 22–30).
The meat of the offering of praise or thanksgiving had to be eaten on the very day of the sacrifice (Lev. 7:15–18; 22:30 [as given]). But in the case of the vow offering and the freewill offering, what remained from the first day was to be eaten the following morning, and whatever was not eaten within the appointed time had to be burned — but not upon the altar (Lev. 7:16–18). Under pain of destruction, it was forbidden for persons in a state of uncleanness, or defiled by any impurity, to eat the meat of the peace offering (Lev. 7:20, 21). In the peace offerings, along with unleavened bread and cakes with oil, leavened bread might also be offered as a sacrifice (Lev. 7:12, 13).
The Pentateuch of Moses
, or the Law, consists of five books, written by the prophet and God-seer Moses. These books are the following:
(apple) (Num. 20:5; Deut. 8:8; Joel 1:12; Hag. 2:19; Song of Songs 4:13; 7:13; 8:2) — of the myrtle family. In the wild state the pomegranate tree sometimes reaches considerable size, but the cultivated variety is always a small tree. Pomegranates grow abundantly in Palestine, are attractive in appearance and pleasant to the taste, being a refreshing and cooling fruit; hence they are frequently referred to in Holy Scripture. When the Israelites came into the wilderness of Zin, they murmured against Moses that in it there was neither water, nor figs, nor vines, nor pomegranates (Num. 20:5), whereas the land promised to them was to be a land of various fruit-bearing trees, among them pomegranates as well.
The spies brought to Joshua from the land of Canaan, together with grapes and figs, pomegranates also (Num. 13:23). The prophets Joel (1:12) and Haggai (2:19) speak, as of a punishment from God, of the withering and drying up of pomegranate trees. Settlements or cities: Rimmon (Josh. 15:32), Gath-rimmon (21:35 [as given]), En-rimmon (Neh. 11:29), probably took their names from pomegranate groves located near these cities. One pomegranate tree, probably of remarkable size and beauty, grew in Saul’s time at Migron, on the edge of Giva of Benjamin (1 Sam. 14:2).
Pomegranate trees and fruit are repeatedly mentioned in the Song of Songs. In this book now a garden of pomegranates is mentioned (4:13), now the bride’s cheeks, on account of their rosy hue, are compared to a slice of pomegranate: “as a piece of a pomegranate are thy temples within thy locks” (4:3), now the beauty of the flowers and fruit of the pomegranate tree is pointed to (6:7–11; 7:13). At present, juice is pressed from pomegranates and one of the finest, most cooling sherbets in the East is prepared from it; this drink, it appears, was prepared in antiquity as well, for in the Song of Songs it is said: “I would cause thee to drink of spiced wine, of the juice of my pomegranate” (8:2).
The fruits of the pomegranate tree were everywhere so prized for their beauty and taste that the blue robe, or ephod, of the high priest was adorned with images of pomegranates (Exod. 28:33, 34), and likewise the capitals of the two bronze pillars (Jachin and Boaz) were adorned with various images of pomegranates (1 Kings 7:18, 20; 2 Chron. 3:15, 16).
(Jer. 18:2; 19:1; Matt. 27:7) (see Clay). Clay vessels were used by the Egyptians and Hebrews for various purposes, chiefly for the preparation of food. Sometimes written obligations were kept in such vessels (Jer. 32:14). Tiles with images and inscriptions were in use not only in Egypt and Assyria, but also in Palestine (Isa. 30:14; Ezek. 4:1). In Jerusalem there was a special class of royal potters (1 Chron. 4:23), and one locality, apparently inhabited by potters, took from them its name (Jer. 18:2; 19:1; 27 [as given]).
The source traces the promise of redemption from the judgment upon the serpent—where the seed of the woman will bruise the serpent’s head though suffering in the conflict (Gen. 3:15)—through the covenantal promises to the patriarchs. It sees anticipations of Christ in Jacob’s blessing upon Judah (Gen. 49:10), Moses’ lifted serpent (Num. 21:8–9; John 3:14–15), Balaam’s star and scepter (Num. 24:17), and Job’s confession of a living Redeemer (Job 19:25–27). These passages vary in literary setting, but Christian interpretation reads them together within the one history of salvation.
Israel’s rulers were imperfect, and many fell into idolatry and oppression. Through the prophets God promised another King greater than all earthly kings. Zechariah proclaimed, “Behold, your king is coming to you, humble” (Zech. 9:9). John the Baptist announced the nearness of the Kingdom, and Jesus preached the Kingdom of Heaven. He was condemned under the title King, rose, ascended in glory, and sits at the right hand of the Father. Revelation names Him “King of kings and Lord of lords” (Rev. 19:16), and He must reign until every enemy is placed beneath His feet (1 Cor. 15:25).
The Promised Land
(Gen. 15:18, Ex. 33:1 and others)—the land of Canaan, promised by the Lord as an inheritance to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. See Palestine.
consists of forty-eight chapters and is highly varied in content. It contains visions (chs. 1, 8, 11), symbolic actions (chs. 4, 8), similitudes (chs. 12, 15), parables (ch. 17), proverbs (12:22; 18:1 and following), allegories, and prophecies (chs. 6-7, 19-20, 23-24, and elsewhere). Especially remarkable is Ezekiel's vision of the reviving and resurrection of human bones as an image of the restoration and renewal of the kingdom of Israel and of the spiritual regeneration and renewal of the whole human race in Christ (ch. 37).
Among his prophecies, particularly noteworthy is the prophecy of the one Shepherd of the one numerous flock (34:23-24, 30-31). The language of Ezekiel's prophetic book draws much from the Pentateuch and Jeremiah's writings, yet it also has many distinctive features. Grotius compares Ezekiel with Homer because of his knowledge of architecture, from which the prophet frequently draws his explanations. Because of its difficulty and mysterious character, the Jews numbered Ezekiel among the genazim, that is, hidden books, and did not permit it to be read before the age of thirty.
The book may generally be divided into two parts: chapters 1-24 contain prophecies uttered before Jerusalem's destruction, and chapters 25-48 those uttered after that event.
The Prophetic Book of Jeremiah
contains fifty-two chapters and may generally be divided into two parts:
, consisting of fourteen chapters, after a brief introduction, contains various prophetic visions and prophetic discourses, especially concerning the building of the second temple of Jerusalem, the restoration of Jerusalem, and the revival of public life. The expected Messiah is called in it “the Man whose name is the Branch”; “He shall grow up out of his place, and he shall build the temple of the LORD” (Zech. 6:12). It should be noted here that in no other prophetic book are so many details given concerning the last days of the Savior’s earthly life as in the prophet Zechariah.
Here we find clear predictions of the Lord’s entry into Jerusalem upon a donkey and a colt (9:9): “Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: behold, thy King cometh unto thee: he is just, and having salvation; lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass.” Of the betrayal of Christ for thirty pieces of silver: “And I took the thirty pieces of silver, and cast them to the potter in the house of the LORD” (11:12–13). Of the piercing of the Savior’s side upon the cross: “And they shall look upon me whom they have pierced” (12:10).
Of the darkening of the sun at the time of the Lord’s crucifixion: “And it shall come to pass, that in that day the light shall not be clear, nor dark: but it shall be one day which shall be known to the LORD, not day, nor night: but it shall come to pass, that at evening time it shall be light” (14:7). Of the striking of the shepherd and the scattering of the apostles during His sufferings: “Smite the shepherd, and the sheep shall be scattered” (13:7). In foretelling the spread of the knowledge of God from Jerusalem, he says: “And it shall be in that day, that living waters shall go out from Jerusalem” (14:8).
And of the union of all under the headship of the one King and Lord he prophesies thus: “And the LORD shall be king over all the earth: in that day shall there be one LORD, and his name one” (14:9).
(Gen. 31:38, Ex. 29:15-20, Lev. 5:15, Num. 5:8, Deut. 32:14 and others). Rams, from among the small livestock, constituted an important and highly prized class of sacrificial animals, used in the burnt offering, in the thank offerings and peace offerings, and also in the trespass offerings. They were offered in both public and private sacrifices, especially in the purification offerings of the Nazarites, at the consecration of priests, in the offerings of the new moon, and generally in the festival offerings.
Their number in the sacrifices was not uniform: sometimes one ram was offered, sometimes two, often seven, and once even a thousand rams were offered as a burnt offering (1 Chron. 29:21). At the public national offerings, such as at Passover and at the dedication of the temple, the number of rams offered was far greater (1 Kings 8:5, 2 Chron. 29:32).
The ram.
See Ram.
(Gen. 8:7) — a bird of the predatory kind, which, according to the Law of Moses, as feeding on carcasses, is unclean (Lev. 11:15; Deut. 14:6). This bird especially loves solitary and desolate places (Isa. 34:11). Feeding on carcasses, the raven first of all pecks out its victim’s eyes. In the Book of Proverbs it is said: “the eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat it” (30:17). Caring for the whole world, for all creatures, and especially for man, God, according to Holy Scripture, also cares for the ravens: “He heedeth the cry of the young ravens, which cry unto Him, and He giveth them their needful food” (Job 38:41; Ps. 147 [146]:9).
Noah sent out a raven to learn the state of the earth; but the raven, it says in the Book of Genesis, went to and fro, no doubt finding abundant food for itself in the carcasses floating on the surface of the waters (Gen. 8:7, and elsewhere). But this voracious bird, in its turn, once served, in the right hand of Providence, as an instrument for providing sustenance in the wilderness for the prophet Elijah, bringing him bread and meat morning and evening (1 Kings 17:4–6). The blackness, with a sheen, of the raven’s breast and wings, in the Song of Songs (5:11), serves as an image of beauty: “his locks (of the beloved) are bushy, and black as a raven.”
In the morning of the first day after the sabbath, now called Sunday, the evangelists relate, certain pious women went to the tomb of the Lord Jesus, to anoint His body with myrrh, which they had not had time to do at His burial. And behold, there was a great earthquake, for the Angel of the Lord descended and rolled away the stone from the tomb. The guards, terrified by his appearance, fled. The Angel addressed the pious women: “Fear not: for I know that ye seek Jesus, which was crucified.
He is not here: for he is risen, as he said. Come, see the place where the Lord lay” (Matt. 28:1–12). The myrrh-bearing women found the tomb open and found in it only the Lord’s grave-clothes. The risen Savior, following this, on the myrrh-bearers’ way back, appeared to them, and afterward appeared to many people many times. He appeared to the apostles over the course of 40 days, continuing to teach them the mysteries of the Kingdom of God (Matt. 28; Mark 16; Luke 24; John 20 and 21; Acts 1:3); to Thomas, who doubted His resurrection, He even allowed to touch His wounds.
By His resurrection from the dead, the Lord Jesus Christ laid the foundation also for our own blessed resurrection (1 Cor. 15:20). A prophetic image of the Lord’s resurrection is presented in the Book of the Prophet Jonah, who was in the belly of the whale three days and three nights (Jonah 2:1).
The Revelation of St. John
. See Apocalypse.
The road of Horon
(2 Sam. 13:34)—understood as the road leading from Upper and Lower Beth-horon in the territory of Ephraim.
By these names is meant one and the same lake, situated in the region of Galilee, in Palestine. In antiquity it was called the Sea of Chinnereth, from its outward oval shape (Num. 34:11; Josh. 12:3); now it is called the Sea of Gennesaret, from the city of Gennesar, and for the beauty of its sceneryand the surrounding countryside, is called Tiberias, from the name of the nearby Galilean city of Tiberias (Matt. 14:34; John 6:1; Mark 8:31 [as given]). It is sometimes also called simply “the sea” (Matt. 8:24; 24:13, and elsewhere), or “the lake” (Luke 8:22, 23).
It stretches 30 versts in length and 8 in breadth; at its northern end the Jordan flows into it, and at its southern end flows out again. The climate here is tropical; among the basalt cliffs grow oleanders, very tall palms, and other trees, and indigo is cultivated in the fields. It appears to owe its origin to some volcanic upheaval. The water in the lake is pleasant to the taste, clear, and cool. The lake abounds in fish, and for this reason the local inhabitants for the most part were engaged, and still are engaged, in fishing.
The lake is usually calm and still, but from the winds off the nearby mountains it sometimes becomes stormy and dangerous for vessels sailing on it. These storms may serve to explain certain passages of the Gospel (Matt. 13:2; Mark 4:35; Luke 8:22; John 6:18). How many sacred and touching memories are bound up with this expansive, preeminently Gospel lake! Here, or not far from it, took place the chief events of the Savior’s earthly life. On its shores stood proud Capernaum, so often visited by the Lord. It was from the fishermen of this lake that He chose His disciples and called them to apostolic service (Matt. 4:18–22; Luke 5:1–11), making them fishers of men.
After the death of their divine Teacher, the Lord’s disciples returned to their customary occupation of fishing, and when the Lord appeared to them after His resurrection, they were casting their nets in the waters of this lake (John 21:1, 14). The country surrounding the lake, in the days of the Lord, was the most populous of the regions of Palestine. No fewer than nine cities stood on its shores, while numerous villages occupied the fertile and picturesque plains and slopes of the nearby hills.
At present, along the shores of the Sea of Galilee, which once teemed with life and activity, reigns a mournful, unbroken silence. Seven of the nine cities that once existed are now entirely uninhabited; of the remaining two, Magdala (birthplace of St. Mary Magdalene, equal to the apostles) is occupied by half a dozen squalid hovels, and only Tiberias preserves a small remnant of its population.
contains one chapter of thirteen verses. The apostle wrote it to an 'elect lady and her children,' whom, he testifies, he loved in the truth - 'and not I only, but also all they that have known the truth' (v. 1). She was probably an honored and distinguished woman converted to Christ and well known to the apostolic Church.
(Dan. 9:24–27)—an expression found only in this remarkable prophecy, which embraces a succession of majestic events. The source interprets Daniel as foretelling, 490 years beforehand, the appearance of the Savior, His death upon the cross, the subsequent destruction of Jerusalem, and the cessation of the sacrifices of the Old Covenant. “Seventy weeks,” says the prophet—that is, 490 years—“are determined upon thy people and upon thy holy city, to finish the transgression, and to make an end of sins, and to make reconciliation for iniquity, and to bring in everlasting righteousness, and to seal up the vision and prophecy, and to anoint the most Holy” (Dan. 9:24).
(Neh. 12:39)—otherwise called the Gate of Gethsemane, or the Gate of the Holy Virgin Mary, or of the high priest Stephen, since it led to Gethsemane and to the tombs of the Most Holy Virgin Mary and of the protomartyr archdeacon Stephen. It is called the Sheep Gate because the Bedouin to this day drive sheep through this gate into the city for sale, just as in ancient times sheep were driven through it, partly to the city market and partly for sacrificial offerings. It lies along the eastern wall of Jerusalem, to the north of the Mosque of Omar, or the ancient site of Solomon’s temple; to the south of it is the Sheep Pool, or Bethesda.
The Sheep Pool
. See Bethesda.
The shrine of Baal
(1 Kings 16:32) — the same as the temple, or place of worship of Baal.
Belonging to the category of propitiatory sacrifices, this offering and the trespass offering were closely connected with one another, though they formed two distinct kinds of sacrifice. The sin offering differed according to the person for whom it was offered and according to the degree of sinfulness that was to be atoned for. Thus, for example, a young bull was prescribed as the sin offering at the consecration of the priests and Levites (Exod. 29:10; Num. 8:7–12), for the high priest on the great Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:3 [as given]; 4:18, 19), when the high priest had sinned to the scandal of the people (Lev. 4:3–12), or when the whole congregation had sinned (Lev. 4:13, 21); a male goat was offered at the new moons and yearly feasts for the sins of the people (Num. 28:22, 30), at the dedication of the tabernacle and of the temple (Num. 7:16, 22; Ezra 6:17); a female goat or a female lamb for the transgressions of any one of the people, for a sin committed in error (Lev. 4:27, 28, 32); a lamb of the first year and a ewe lamb of the first year at the release of the vow of the Nazirites (Num. 6:14, 16, 19) and at the cleansing of a leper (Lev. 14:10, 19); a turtledove or young pigeon at the purification of a woman after childbirth (Lev. 12:6), of a woman who had suffered a long issue of blood (Lev. 15:29, and elsewhere), and in place of a lamb, for the poor, in cases of ordinary sin (Lev. 5:7); wheat flour, a tenth part of an ephah without oil or frankincense, for an ordinary sin, for one who was utterly poor and could not afford to offer even a pigeon.
(1 Sam. 17:40) — an ancient weapon of war, by means of which stones struck their target with great force and remarkable accuracy (Judg. 20:15, 16). For skillful handling of the sling the Benjamites were especially renowned (Judg. 20:16), being also good archers, shooting left-handed (1 Chron. 12:2).
The article concludes from these marks that the fullness of the true Church of Christ abides in the Eastern Orthodox Church and in Churches sharing her faith. It identifies Christ alone as Head, apostolic teaching as her doctrine, and the spirit of the primitive Church as her life, preserved in the faith and order confessed by the seven Ecumenical Councils.
(Prov. 26:2; Tobit 2:10) — a commonly known small, low-value bird of the domestic kind, found throughout Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. From this the force of the expression becomes clear: “Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing?” (Matt. 10:29). Sparrows were offered in sacrifice by the very poorest people (Lev. 14:4), since two of them were sold for a farthing (Matt. 10:29), and five for two farthings (Luke 12:6). This little bird usually settles and builds its nest under the roofs of human dwellings and under the roofs of the temples of God; for this reason the psalmist, expressing his deep sorrow at being removed from the temple of the Lord and his ardent desire to visit the Tabernacle of the Testimony as soon as possible, pointing to this little bird, exclaims: “the bird (that is, the sparrow) hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself” (Ps. 84 [83]:3, 4).
(mercy, compassion) (Jer. 8:7). In the Septuagint it is read as erodios (heron) — a migratory bird of the crane kind, only larger; it feeds on insects and frogs, and in the Book of Leviticus (11:19) is classed among the unclean birds. The stork has long legs, with which it forages for food in marshes and places abounding in water. The bird’s beak is so formed that it can easily hold slippery prey; it builds its nests sometimes in trees: “as for the stork, the fir trees are her house” (Ps. 103 [104]:17), and sometimes on tall, half-ruined towers.
The stork’s character is marked by gentleness and affection. This is especially noticeable in the young in relation to the old birds. In autumn storks fly away to a hot climate, as is indicated in a certain way in the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah: “the stork in the heaven,” says the prophet, “knoweth her appointed times” (8:7), and in spring they return again and settle into their nests.
(Josh. 19:32–39) was located in the very north of Palestine; on the south it bordered the tribe of Zebulun, on the west the tribe of Asher, and was separated from the half-tribe of Manasseh on the east by the upper Jordan. The territory of the tribe of Naphtali’s allotment was extraordinarily varied in its situation: in it were found mountains, valleys, and plains. Some parts of this territory are still very fertile to this day, while others are adorned with majestic forests, though among them are also found not a few empty and burned-over places.
The boundaries of the territory of the tribe of Naphtali are reckoned in the Book of Joshua (19:32–39). * Mount Naphtali** (Josh. 20:7)—a mountainous part of the tribe of Naphtali, on which Kedesh in Galilee was situated, a small town still pointed out to this day not far to the northwest of the waters of Merom.
likewise contains one chapter, of fifteen verses. It was probably written about the same time as the First Epistle to Gaius the Corinthian, mentioned in Romans 16:23 and 1 Corinthians 1:14. Its purpose is to encourage Gaius in faithfulness to Christ and hospitality toward the poor and needy, to warn him against the ambitious Diotrephes, and to unite him with the good Demetrius. 'Peace be to thee,' the apostle concludes; 'our friends salute thee. Greet the friends by name. Amen' (v. 15).
, mentioned in the Book of Genesis (14:23), is thought by some to signify the cord on which were strung the precious stones composing a necklace. Bracelets, or wristlets, were worn by persons of both the male and female sex on both arms (2 Sam. 1:10), and women sometimes also on their feet (Is. 3:19-20). Women in Persia and Arabia wear chains around their ankles, adorned with little bells (Is. 3:16). Hand mirrors, made of cast bronze and beautifully polished, also formed a common accessory to women’s adornment. They were usually carried either in the hand or on a cord around the neck. See Mirror.
The threshing floor.
See Threshing floor.
(Gen. 14:20) — a kind of offering, known to the Hebrews long before the time of Moses. This offering, constituting a gift to God, consisted of a tenth part of the produce of the land, of flocks, and the like, and went to the benefit of the Levites, who had no landed inheritances and therefore needed means for their subsistence. The tithe, in this case, constituted something in the nature of rent, paid to them in place of land. One tenth part of their own tithe the Levites, in turn, contributed toward the support of the high priest (Num. 18:21–32).
The remaining nine parts were again divided into tithes, and from the second tithe a feast was prepared in the court of the sanctuary, or in some sanctuary near it. However, if a Jew found it inconvenient to bring his tithe in kind, he was permitted to sell it and bring the money, with the addition of one sixth of the amount realized; with this money he purchased everything needed for the feast, and only then went to the sanctuary (Deut. 14:22–27). At this feast they entertained their families, friends, and the Levites.
On the basis of the words of Deuteronomy (14:28, 29) it may be thought that every third year a third tithe was required of the Hebrews, to be eaten in company with the poor and the Levites, the aged and the infirm, although some Western interpreters, such as Maimonides, Michaelis, and others, deny the existence of this. Livestock was brought as tithe in the following manner: the animals were released from their pens under a rod held in someone’s hand, which touched every tenth animal in succession, after which it became the property of the Levites, regardless of whether it was good or bad, and it was not permitted to exchange it (Lev. 27:32, 33). It is not clear whether a tithe was required from produce and herbs. It is only known that the Pharisees gave tithe of mint, anise, and cummin (Matt. 23:23).
(confusion) (Gen. 11:4–9) — was built by the descendants of Noah in the valley of Shinar. The tribe of Ham, out of fear of the dispersion and servitude threatening it (Gen. 9:25, 27), resolved to hinder the fulfillment of the Divine decree and, in alliance with other tribes, began to build a great city in the valley of Shinar, and by it a high tower, which might serve as a center for all the tribes and at the same time a token of their equality. For want of stone in the valley of Shinar, the builders made and fired bricks of clay, and used bitumen instead of lime for mortar.
The Lord confused their language, so that, being unable to understand one another, they were compelled to abandon their mad undertaking and disperse into various lands, from which came the various nations speaking various languages. The city was named Babylon, that is, “confusion.” The height and extent of the tower, according to the earliest drawings that have come down to us, were truly enormous. Chronologists calculate that the descendants of Noah must have spent three years merely gathering the materials, and no less than twenty-two years on the building of the tower itself.
According to one ancient tradition, the bricks, or, more accurately, slabs used for building the tower, each measured 20 English feet in length, 15 in width, and 7 in thickness.
The towers of Jerusalem.
See Jerusalem.
The source closes its doctrinal discussion by praising Christianity’s call to truth, mercy, brotherly love, chastity, freedom from tyranny, and care for family and society. It cites Origen’s appeal to compare converts’ former lives with the temperance, justice, and steadfastness produced by Christ’s teaching, and Lactantius’s claim that the word of God can turn the angry toward gentleness, the greedy toward generosity, and the cruel toward mercy. Their polemical contrasts with pagan society belong to their historical apologetic setting; the enduring Christian claim is that grace renews sinners, not that every baptized society or individual already embodies the Gospel perfectly.
was appointed only for private individuals, and for such offenses as, though not deserving of death, nevertheless required some satisfactory penalty. It consisted of a ram, generally valued by the priest (Lev. 5:15, and elsewhere), or a ewe, or a goat, or a lamb (Lev. 5:1–19 [as given]; Num. 6:12). After the slaughter of the animal on the north side of the altar, its blood was sprinkled on the altar on all sides, the fat was burned on the altar, as in the sin offering, and the meat was eaten by the priests in a holy place (Lev. 7:1–7, and elsewhere).
(1 Sam. 9:25 [as given]; Judg. 5:14, and elsewhere) — had its inheritance in the Promised Land, between the tribes of Judah and Ephraim. When the ten tribes of Israel fell away, the tribe of Benjamin remained faithful to Judah, and thereafter formed part of the kingdom of Judah (1 Kings 12:17–23), which, as is known, consisted of two tribes: Judah and Benjamin. The prophecies concerning the fate of the tribe of Benjamin are given in the Book of Genesis (49:27) and in the Book of Deuteronomy (33:12).
The inheritance of the tribe of Benjamin was not large, but the soil in it was fertile and the climate healthful. The details of the military alliance and the campaign of the sons of Israel against this tribe, accompanied by a bloody war that nearly annihilated it, are related in the Book of Judges (20). Some warriors of the tribe of Benjamin were famed for their skill in slinging stones with the left hand (left-handed men). Here it may also be mentioned that Saul, the first king of the Hebrews, was of the tribe of Benjamin, and that within its bounds lay the capital city of Judea, Jerusalem. St. Paul the Apostle likewise was of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil. 3:5).
(Exod. 31:6) had its inheritance between the territories of the tribes of Judah and Ephraim on the one side, and between the territories of the tribe of Benjamin and the seacoast on the other. Peace and tranquility were not the lot of the tribe of Dan (Judg. 1:34, 35); the sons of Dan were frequently troubled and hard-pressed by the natives of the neighboring pagan lands. The inheritance of the Danites was undoubtedly fertile, though it abounded in undulating plains and rocky hills, but it was the smallest inheritance among the rest (Josh. 19:47; Judg. 18:1), and for this reason they were concerned to expand their territory.
To this end, five men sent by them found land on the northern border, near Beth-rehob, called Laish, or otherwise Leshem, with a city of the same name (Judg. 18:7; Josh. 19:47), which seemed in every respect suitable for settlement and not difficult to conquer (Judg. 18:10). The sacred historian gives us, though brief, yet interesting information about how they acted in order to take possession of Laish. They struck down the people of Laish with the sword and burned the city (Judg. 18:27 [as given]). However, the Danites soon rebuilt the city and named it Dan, after the name of their father Dan, son of Israel (v. 29).
occupied one of the best and most fruitful portions of the Promised Land, in its very midst (Josh. 16:1–9), and was the center of the people of Israel. Its borders were: on the west, the Mediterranean Sea; on the east, the river Jordan; on the north, part of the tribe of Manasseh; and on the south, portions of the tribes of Dan and Manasseh. The city of Shiloh lay within the borders of the tribe of Ephraim, and for this reason the whole region is sometimes called Ephraim (Jer. 31:9, 18, 20).
Here, at Shiloh, the Tabernacle was set up, and remained there for about three hundred years, until the days of the high priest Eli. Here too were the homeland and burial place of Joshua the son of Nun. Here also stood the mountains so memorable to the Hebrews, Gerizim and Ebal. Of the judges of the people of Israel, Abdon and the prophet Samuel were of Ephraim. In the blessings of Jacob and of Moses, Ephraim, or the tribe of Ephraim, is called a patient buffalo (Deut. 33:17) and a fruitful bough by a well (Gen. 49:22).
When the kingdom of Israel fell under foreign yoke, the words of the prophets concerning the tribe of Ephraim became ever more sorrowful. “I have surely heard Ephraim bemoaning himself thus: Thou hast chastised me, and I was chastised, as a bullock unaccustomed to the yoke” (Jer. 31:18; Hos. 10:11, 8; 4:16); “Ephraim is as an heifer that is taught, and loveth to tread out the corn” (Hos. 10:11), “a heifer of Bashan, in the mountain of Samaria” (Amos 4:1).
The tribe of Gad.
See Gad.
The inheritance that fell to the tribe of Issachar, between the inheritances of Zebulun and Ephraim, was undoubtedly one of the most beautiful and fertile. It occupied the richly fruitful Valley of Jezreel with the adjoining mountains - Tabor, Little Hermon, and Gilboa - as far as the Jordan and the Sea of Galilee (Josh 19:17-23). Even now, as in biblical times, the region is renowned for its exceptional fertility, according to contemporary travelers.
The territory of the tribe of Naphtali, as has been said above, belonged to the very fertile lands of Palestine, but the Naphtalites did not drive out from their borders the former inhabitants (Judg. 1:33), and afterward the kingdom of Jabin arose here, which was later defeated by Deborah and Barak (Judg. ch. 4). The Naphtalites also helped Gideon in his war with the Midianites and the Amalekites (Judg. 6:35). At the invasion of the Assyrians, they were led into captivity before the other Israelites, and among the captives was Tobit the Naphtalite (2 Kings 15:29, Tobit 1:2).
To the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali it was promised through the prophet Isaiah that in them, before others, the light of the Gospel would shine (Is. 9:1-2), and this was fulfilled. The Lord spent the greater part of His public ministry here, in the territories of Naphtali and Zebulun (Matt. 4:13-15), and thus “the people that sat in darkness saw a great light.”
(John 19:19-22)—Pilate wrote a title and placed it on Jesus’ cross: “Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews.” John says that it was written in Hebrew (that is, the local Jewish language, probably Aramaic), Latin, and Greek. Latin represented Roman authority, Greek was widely understood across the eastern Mediterranean, and the Semitic language addressed the local population. The chief priests objected, asking Pilate to write that Jesus merely claimed to be king, but he answered, “What I have written I have written.” The source’s suggestion that Pilate devised the wording chiefly to humiliate Jewish authorities is possible but not explicitly stated by the Evangelist. The Church reads the public and multilingual title as an unwitting proclamation of Christ’s kingship.
(Gen. 15:9). Together with doves, numerous flocks of turtledoves are found in Palestine. The turtledove is smaller than the dove and belongs to the migratory birds. In Palestine they appear at the beginning of spring (Song of Songs 2:12). They were offered in sacrifice, as were doves (Gen. 15:9; Lev. 1:14), and were eaten as a clean bird (Deut. 14:14). See Dove.
(Matt. 21:8, 5:40) probably consisted of a square or oblong piece of woolen material, two or three yards in length and, perhaps, two yards in width. Similar garments are worn by the Arabs at the present day. This garment was simply wrapped around the body as a protection from the weather, and, when needed, could be thrown over the shoulder and under the arm—this was something like the actual Indian blankets—and was fastened on the shoulders by two clasps. The Arabs throw this garment over the left shoulder and under the right arm, and thus cover the whole body, leaving only the right arm bare.
Among poor people such a garment served as a night covering (Ex. 22:26-27, Job 24:7). This was probably the very same garment, or linen covering, referred to in the Gospel of Matthew (5:40), which is otherwise called in the Russian Bible the upper garment, or a mantle (2 Kings 2:8). It is supposed that the trim along the edges of this garment, or the silken tassels with blue threads (Num. 15:38), were placed on the sides, or edges (Matt. 23:5). They can still be seen to this day in ancient depictions.
In winter, furs or leather garments were worn, as is still the case at the present day in Eastern countries. In 2 Kings (1:8) and in the Book of the prophet Zechariah (13:4), it is perhaps a garment of sheep’s wool or goat hair that is meant. Ordinary leather garments of this kind were worn chiefly by the very poor and the lower class (Heb. 11:37), but fur garments were sometimes valued very highly and formed part of royal adornments. A garment of sheepskin (Matt. 7:15) was considered an image of innocence and meekness and served symbolically to unmask false prophets, who in reality were rapacious and ravenous wolves, thirsting for the destruction of mankind.
The word “sindons,” used in the Book of Judges (14:12, 13), or shirts of fine linen, signifies, in the opinion of some, a garment worn directly beneath the warm
(Num. 16:14; Isa. 7:23; Exod. 22:4 [as given]; Ezek. 28:26, and elsewhere). Vineyards and the wine obtained from them have always been very highly prized in every country. The first mention of a vineyard and vineyard wine occurs in the Book of Genesis (9:20), in the history of the patriarch Noah. This cited passage of Holy Scripture, among other things, serves as an indication that the cultivation of the grapevine was unknown before the Flood. Grapevines still grow wild in Armenia, in the region of Ararat.
(Song of Songs 6:11) — the walnut tree grows very tall and blossoms in April, and in September bears fruit. In Hebrew: egoz. The name of walnuts occurs in Holy Scripture only once, namely in the cited passage. Walnuts were cultivated in gardens in the time of Solomon, and in the early days of the Christian Church they grew predominantly on the shores of the Sea of Gennesaret. At present, walnut trees of this kind grow abundantly in Palestine, on Lebanon, and in other places. There they sometimes attain such size that up to 24 people can sit around the trunk of one of them. Oil is produced from the kernels of the fruit; the sturdy and handsome timber of this tree serves as excellent material for joinery, taking a fine polish.
The Water Gate.
See Jerusalem.
The water of jealousy
(Num. 5:11–31) — the bitter water used in the testing of guilt or innocence, which a woman suspected of adultery had to drink during the performance of certain rites and the uttering of an oath, and which brought a curse upon her if she proved guilty.
a) (Num. 8:7) used in the rite of the consecration of the Levites. It served as a symbol of the moral and spiritual purification with which the servants of the Most High God must be filled; b) (Num. 19:2) water used together with the ashes of a red heifer, for the ritual purification of persons who had defiled themselves by touching a dead body.
(Exod. 29:24–28, and elsewhere) — ritual acts of the offering and consecration of a sacrifice to God; with the latter ritual act was combined the waving of the sacrificial portions before the Lord, especially in peace offerings, or offerings of salvation, and at the consecration of priests (Exod. 29:24; Lev. 8:27). The same waving was performed at the offering of the first sheaf on the second day of Passover (Lev. 23:11), of the two lambs, and of the first fruits offered at Pentecost (Lev. 23:20).
The rite itself consisted, according to the Talmudists’ explanation, of a cross-shaped movement of the gift consecrated to God, back and forth, left and right, in the direction of the Holy of Holies. However, Holy Scripture does not speak of this directly. Sometimes the priest took the offering into his own hands and lifted it up directly before the Lord (Num. 5:25); sometimes he placed the sacrificial offering upon the hands of the one offering it and, placing his own hand beneath, performed the waving. Thus it was done by Moses at the consecration of the priests (Exod. 29:24); thus it was also done at the consecration of Nazirites (Num. 6:19, 20).
The whole burnt offering.
See Sacrifice, whole burnt offering.
The wilderness of Etham
(Num. 33:8) formed, in all likelihood, part of the great wilderness of Shur, which bordered the head of the Red Sea and also occupied part of its eastern shores. The Hebrews journeyed through it for three days after crossing the Red Sea, before encamping at Marah.
(2 Sam. 2:24) — undoubtedly located in the vicinity of the city of Gibeon, as was also the valley of Gibeon, remarkable for Joshua’s victory over the five combined Amorite kings and the miracle worked here (Josh. 10:11). It is thought that the four cities named in the book of Joshua (9:17) constituted something in the nature of a federal state (cf. Josh. 10:2; 9:11).
(Lev. 23:40; Ps. 137 [136]:2; Exod. [Ezek.] 17:5, and elsewhere) — a well-known tree, growing on moist soil and by springs of water. The beautiful-looking plant known to us under the name of the weeping willow is otherwise called the Babylonian willow, and it is this kind of willow that is mentioned in the 137th [136th] Psalm: “We hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst of it [Babylon]” (v. 2). In another place of Holy Scripture the willow branches are called “willows of the brook,” that is, river willows (Lev. 23:40).
Willows were used by the Israelites at the Feast of Tabernacles. The banks of the Jordan are still to this day shaded by spreading willows (Muravyov and Norov), though not in such abundance as in Biblical times. Since the willow does not grow on the banks of the Euphrates, it is supposed that the tree mentioned under this name in Psalm 137 [136] was of the poplar or aspen family, which grow abundantly along the banks of that river and are known among the Arabs under the name al-gharab.
The Winepress of Zeeb Zeb Jakephzeph
(the winepress of Zeeb, or a press for extracting grape juice) (Judg 7:25) - the place where the Ephraimites killed Zeeb, a prince of Midian, in Gideon's time. Its location is unknown.
(Isa. 11:6) — a wild, fierce, predatory animal, resembling a dog in size and appearance, belonging to the canine family, and the most terrible enemy of sheep (Isa. 65:25; Matt. 7:15, and elsewhere). The patriarch Jacob, in his dying prophecy over his sons, compares the rapacity of the tribe of Benjamin to the rapacity of a wolf: “Benjamin,” he foretold, “shall ravin as a wolf: in the morning he shall devour the prey, and at night he shall divide the spoil” (Gen. 49:27). Sacred writers also compare the cruelty of Israel’s persecutors to the ferocity of a wolf (Ezek. 22:27).
The wreath, crown
(1 Kings 7:41; 2 Chron. 4:12, 13). By this word is denoted the upper part, or capital, of the two pillars set up by Solomon at the porch of the temple he built.
Theater
(Acts 19:29, 31)—a public auditorium used for dramatic performances, civic assemblies, political announcements, and legal or popular gatherings. In Ephesus the crowd rushed into the theater during the disturbance provoked by opposition to Paul’s preaching (Acts 19:23-41).
(Jer. 46:25; Ezek. 30:14-16; Nah. 3:8)—the great city of Upper Egypt on both banks of the Nile, centered in the region of modern Luxor and Karnak. Egyptian Waset was called No or No-amon in the Bible because of its association with the god Amun. Greek tradition celebrated Thebes as “hundred-gated,” a poetic expression of its scale and military resources.
(Judg. 9:50–54; 2 Sam. 11:21)—a town northeast of Shechem where Abimelech besieged a strong tower. A woman dropped an upper millstone upon his head; mortally wounded, he ordered his armor-bearer to kill him so that it would not be said that a woman slew him. The site is commonly identified with modern Tubas.
Theco
(Josh. 15:59 in the Greek textual tradition)—a town of Judah. See Tekoa.
, the secret taking of another’s property, or the open taking of another’s property with violence, is punished by God (Prov. 22:22, 23), brings a curse upon the thief (Deut. 27:17), deprives him of heaven (1 Cor. 6:10). The punishment for theft, according to the Law of Moses, is set forth in the Book of Exodus (22:1–8) and in the prophet Ezekiel (18:12, 13).
—(1) a commander in Coele-syria who defected from Ptolemy IV Philopator to Antiochus III. According to 3 Maccabees 1:2-3, he entered Ptolemy’s tent at night intending to kill him, but Dositheus son of Drimylus had placed another man in the king’s bed, and the intended victim escaped. (2) One of the envoys whom Nicanor sent with Posidonius and Mattathias to negotiate terms with Judas Maccabeus (2 Macc. 14:19).
(“friend of God” or “loved by God”) (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1)—the person to whom Luke addressed both his Gospel and Acts. Luke calls him “most excellent,” a form of address that may indicate high social or official rank, though little else is securely known about him. The source describes him as a Greek Christian, Luke’s friend, and patron; these are reasonable possibilities rather than explicit statements of the New Testament.
Theras
(1 Esd. 8:41, 61)—the river where Ezra assembled the returning exiles, reviewed the company, proclaimed a fast, and prepared them for the journey to Jerusalem. It corresponds to the river or canal flowing toward Ahava in Ezra 8:15, 21, 31 and may be another name for the same gathering place.
(Acts 17:1, 11, 13; Phil. 4:16; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Tim. 4:10)—a principal city of Macedonia on the Thermaic Gulf, now Thessaloniki in northern Greece. It stood on the Via Egnatia and possessed a harbor that made it an important center of travel and trade. A substantial Jewish community had a synagogue there.
(Acts 5:36)—a Jewish insurgent mentioned by Gamaliel as a man who claimed importance and attracted about four hundred followers; he was killed, and his adherents were dispersed. Josephus describes another Theudas who led a movement during the procuratorship of Fadus, more than a decade after Gamaliel’s speech would have occurred. They may be different men bearing the same common name, or Acts and Josephus may preserve distinct chronological traditions; the evidence does not justify silently identifying them.
(Gen. 24:2)—Abraham required his servant to place a hand under his thigh while swearing an oath; Jacob used the same solemn form with Joseph (Gen. 47:29). The gesture’s precise symbolism is uncertain. It may invoke kinship, posterity, or the covenant embodied in Abraham’s line; connecting it specifically with circumcision is possible but not demonstrable. Jacob’s thigh or hip was struck in his wrestling at the Jabbok, leaving him with a limp (Gen. 32:25, 31). The inscription on Christ’s robe and thigh in Revelation 19:16 belongs to victorious royal imagery and need not imply writing directly on the body.
(Zech. 11:12–13; Matt. 26:15)—the price for which Judas agreed to betray Christ. Matthew deliberately relates the sum to Zechariah’s contemptuous valuation of the rejected shepherd. The coins were probably silver shekels, each equivalent to four drachmas, although the Gospel itself does not name the denomination. Obsolete nineteenth-century conversions into Russian currency are omitted.
(“elevated place”) (Tob. 1:2)—the home of Tobit, described as lying south of Kedesh-naphtali in Galilee, above Asher. This Galilean Thisbe should not automatically be identified with Elijah’s Tishbe in Gilead. The prophet is called “Elijah the Tishbite, of the settlers of Gilead” (1 Kings 17:1), which points to a Gileadite location even though the precise site is unknown.
Thistles.
See Thorn.
Thocanus (Theocanus)
(1 Esd. 9:14)—father of Ezekias, who with Jonathan took responsibility for the inquiry concerning men who had married foreign wives. The parallel Hebrew text names Jahzeiah son of Tikvah (Ezra 10:15); Thocanus is therefore the Greek textual counterpart of Tikvah.
(Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; John 11:16; 14:5; 20:24; 21:2; Acts 1:13)—one of the Twelve Apostles. The Aramaic name Thomas and the Greek Didymus both mean “twin.” John’s Gospel preserves several sayings that reveal his direct and resolute character. When Jesus set out for Judea after Lazarus’s death, Thomas said, “Let us also go, that we may die with him” (John 11:16). At the Last Supper he asked, “Lord, we do not know where you are going. How can we know the way?” and received Christ’s answer, “I am the way, and the truth, and the life” (John 14:5-6).
Thomei (Thomoi)
(1 Esd. 5:32)—the name of a family of temple servants who returned from exile with Zerubbabel. It corresponds to Temah in Ezra 2:53 and Nehemiah 7:55.
(Hos. 2:6)—Hosea’s image, “I will hedge up thy way with thorns,” describes God’s restraining judgment upon unfaithful Israel. Thorn hedges were natural and formidable barriers in the biblical landscape, so the figure conveys blocked paths, painful frustration, and providential prevention of further wandering.
Thorn Bush
. See Burning Bush.
(Gen. 3:18)—general biblical terms for harmful, useless, or obstructive vegetation; the exact plants cannot always be identified. Thorns and thistles enter the judgment pronounced upon the ground after Adam’s sin (Gen. 3:17–19). Elsewhere they signify neglect and ruin (Prov. 24:30–31; Isa. 5:6), hostile obstacles (Num. 33:55), and impediments in a person’s way (Prov. 22:5). The plants existed within creation, but after the Fall they become emblematic of toil, frustration, and the disorder of the cursed ground.
(2 Macc. 12:35)—the region north and northeast of Macedonia, known in antiquity for horses, cavalry, metals, and warrior peoples. In 2 Maccabees a cavalryman named Dositheus, one of Bacenor’s men, seized Gorgias and would have taken him alive, but a Thracian horseman struck off Dositheus’s arm, allowing Gorgias to escape to Marisa. The source’s nineteenth-century political description of Thrace is not retained as current geography.
Thraseas
(2 Macc. 3:5)—father of Apollonius, governor of Coele-syria and Phoenicia. Simon, a Temple official at Jerusalem, informed Apollonius that the treasury contained immense wealth, prompting a report to King Seleucus IV and the mission of Heliodorus to seize the funds.
(Acts 28:15)—a stopping place on the Appian Way, roughly thirty-three Roman miles from Rome, probably named for roadside inns or shops serving travelers. Christians from Rome came as far as Three Taverns and the Forum of Appius to meet Paul while he was being escorted to the capital as a prisoner. Ancient writers also mention the station.
(Num. 15:20; Judg. 6:37)—a hard, level surface on which grain was threshed and winnowed, normally placed on high, dry ground where wind could carry away the chaff. Owners sometimes slept there to guard the harvest (Ruth 3:3). Some floors retained proper names, such as the threshing floor of Nacon and that of Araunah or Ornan. David purchased Araunah’s floor after the plague, built an altar there, and Solomon later built the Temple on that site (2 Sam. 24:16–25; 1 Chron. 21:18–22:1; 2 Chron. 3:1).
Threshold
(Judg. 19:27; 1 Sam. 5:4 and elsewhere). In an ordinary house the threshold is the wooden beam beneath a doorway over which one steps when entering. Ezekiel 40:6 and Nehemiah 12:25 refer to thresholds of gates; hence gatekeepers are guardians of the thresholds.
(2 Chron. 9:17–19; Gen. 41:40; Ps. 50:7; Rev. 4:4 and elsewhere)—a raised place or high seat upon which kings and rulers sit at solemn audiences. It is higher than an ordinary chair and may require a footstool. Some thrones were reached by steps and were broad enough for a queen or royal son to sit beside the king (Isa. 6:1; Ps. 110:1). Solomon’s throne was made of ivory and overlaid with pure gold (1 Kings 10:18–20).
Thuja
. See Olive Tree.
(Isa. 29:6; Job 26:14; Ps. 29 [28]:3, 8 [as given]; Ps. 104 [103]:7) — a majestic natural phenomenon. By the laws of physics, thunder is nothing other than a powerful sound in masses of airborne clouds, arising from their being cleft by lightning (an intensified electrical spark). The majestic peals of thunder in the book of Psalms are represented as the wrath of God: "The voice of the Lord is upon the waters: the God of glory thundereth. The voice of the Lord is powerful; the voice of the Lord
Thyatira
(Acts 16:14; Rev. 1:11; 2:18, 24)—a city of Lydia in western Asia Minor, now Akhisar in Turkey, situated between Sardis and Pergamum. It was known for trade guilds and textile production. Lydia, the seller of purple goods whom Paul met and baptized at Philippi, came from Thyatira (Acts 16:14).
(Rev. 18:12)—a costly, fragrant wood listed among the luxury goods of Babylon. The Greek xylon thyinon probably refers to wood from the North African thuya or a related aromatic evergreen, valued for cabinetmaking and a high polish. The exact species is uncertain; the theological force of the passage lies in the collapse of an opulent commercial system rather than in botanical precision.
(John 6:23)—a city founded by Herod Antipas on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee and named for the emperor Tiberius. It became Antipas’s capital, with a palace and nearby warm springs at Hammath. Because part of the site had been built over tombs, observant Jews initially regarded residence there as defiling; the city nevertheless became an important center of Jewish learning after the destruction of Jerusalem. It later passed through Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, Crusader, and other rule and was severely damaged by the earthquake of 1837. The Gospel of John mentions boats arriving from Tiberias and uses the city’s name for the lake.
(Luke 3:1)—Roman emperor from AD 14 to 37 and successor, not another name, of Augustus. John the Baptist began preaching in the fifteenth year of his reign, and the public ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus occurred during it. Josephus’s account of Jesus, known as the Testimonium Flavianum, survives in a form whose wording has been debated because it appears to contain later Christian additions; the source’s assertion that its complete authenticity is beyond doubt cannot be sustained. Later stories that Tiberius proposed recognizing Christ among Rome’s gods depend on Christian apologetic tradition rather than secure imperial records.
Tibhath Matabeth
(probably place of slaughter; 1 Chron. 18:8)—one of the cities of Hadadezer from which David took a great quantity of bronze. The parallel account names Betah and Berothai (2 Sam. 8:8), reflecting variant place-names in the textual tradition.
Tibni Thamni
(1 Kings 16:21-22)—son of Ginath and rival claimant to Israel’s throne after Zimri’s death. Half the people followed Tibni and half followed Omri; Omri’s supporters prevailed, Tibni died, and Omri became king.
(2 Kings 15:29; 16:7, 10; 1 Chron. 5:6, 26; 2 Chron. 28:20)—king of Assyria from 745 to 727 BC. The source calls him the successor of Pul, but Pul is generally understood as the Babylonian throne name of Tiglath-pileser III. His reign marked a decisive expansion of Assyrian power in Syria and Palestine.
(swift; Gen. 2:14; Tob. 6:1–2; Dan. 10:4)—one of the great rivers of Mesopotamia and one of the four rivers named in Eden. Rising in the highlands of eastern Anatolia, it flows southeast past the region of ancient Nineveh and modern Mosul and Baghdad, receives major tributaries from the east, and joins the Euphrates in the Shatt al-Arab before reaching the Persian Gulf. In antiquity an extensive network of canals connected and irrigated the lands between the two rivers.
Tikvah
(hope; 2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chron. 34:22)—father-in-law of the prophetess Huldah through his son Shallum. The Chronicles form is Tokhath in some textual traditions.
Tikvah
(“hope”) (Ezra 10:15)—father of Jahzeiah, who is named with Jonathan son of Asahel in connection with Ezra’s inquiry into foreign marriages. See Jahzeiah and Thocanus.
Tilon Inon
(1 Chron. 4:20)—a son or descendant of Shimon in the genealogies of Judah, named with Amnon, Rinnah, and Ben-hanan.
—(1) a concubine of Eliphaz, Esau’s son, and mother of Amalek (Gen. 36:12; 1 Chron. 1:36); (2) a sister of Lotan the Horite (Gen. 36:22; 1 Chron. 1:39); (3) Timnah, a town in the hill country or Shephelah of Judah associated with Judah’s sheep-shearers and his encounter with Tamar (Gen. 38:12-14; Josh. 15:57). The personal and place names share the same traditional form but should not be conflated.
Timna
—(1) an Edomite clan chief descended from Esau (Gen. 36:40; 1 Chron. 1:51); (2) Timnah, a town in the hill country of Judah (Josh. 15:57), distinct from or possibly related to other places bearing the same name. Its exact site is uncertain.
Timnah
(Josh. 15:57)—a town of Judah, probably the place associated with Judah and Tamar in Genesis 38. See Timna, entry 3.
(Judg. 14:1-5)—a town in the territory associated with Dan and the Philistine borderlands, west of Jerusalem. Samson saw a Philistine woman there and insisted on marrying her despite his parents’ objections; Judges interprets the episode within the LORD’s purpose of seeking an occasion against the Philistines, without presenting Samson’s desire as a general model for marriage. The site is commonly associated with Tel Batash.
(Josh. 19:50; 24:30; Judg. 2:9)—the town in the hill country of Ephraim granted to Joshua, where he built, lived, and was buried, north of Mount Gaash. It is also called Timnath-heres. The source reports nineteenth-century proposals identifying it with villages and ancient tombs near Tibneh and Kifl Haris; the exact archaeological identification remains debated.
Timnath-serah Thamnasarach
(Josh. 19:50)—the inheritance and burial place of Joshua in the hill country of Ephraim. See Timnath-serah above.
Timon
(Acts 6:5)—one of the Seven chosen by the Jerusalem church and appointed by the apostles to oversee the daily distribution. Later calendars associate him with missionary work, an episcopate, and martyrdom, but Acts gives no further biography.
(honoring God)—the name of two persons. (1) (1 Macc. 5:6–7 and elsewhere) a commander who fought the Jews during the campaigns of Judas Maccabeus. (2) (Acts 16:1–3; Rom. 16:21; 1 Tim. 1:2) Paul’s younger coworker, encountered at Lystra. His mother Eunice was Jewish and his father Greek; his grandmother Lois and his mother nurtured him in faith and knowledge of Scripture (2 Tim. 1:5; 3:15). Paul circumcised him because of the Jews in that region, then took him as a companion and repeatedly sent him to strengthen churches. Paul calls him his beloved and faithful child in the Lord and praises his sincere concern for believers (1 Cor. 4:17; Phil. 2:19–22).
(Num. 31:22)—a well-known metal, in use from the earliest times and forming one of the articles of trade with Tyre (Ezek. 27:12). Tin, together with other metals, was mined in antiquity on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean [as printed: “Western Ocean”]. To the dross of tin, copper, iron, and lead the people of Israel are compared, remaining incorrigible, despite all God’s warnings, in all their wickedness and vile abominations (Ezek. 22:18).
Tinshemeth
(Lev. 11:30)—one of the creatures classed as unclean in the Mosaic law. The Hebrew name is difficult: older English and Russian traditions sometimes rendered it “mole,” while many modern versions propose a chameleon or another reptile. The exact animal is uncertain.
(crossing or ford)—the name of two places. (1) (1 Kings 4:24) a city on the Euphrates, commonly identified with Thapsacus, marking the northeastern extent of Solomon’s dominion. Greek and Macedonian armies later crossed the river in this region. (2) (2 Kings 15:16) a city attacked by Menahem after it refused him entrance. Its location is disputed, and some textual witnesses read Tappuah rather than Tipsah.
(Gen. 10:2; 1 Chron. 1:5)—a son of Japheth in the Table of Nations. Ancient and modern writers have proposed connections with Thracians, Tyrrhenians, or other peoples of the Aegean and Anatolian world, but Scripture gives no further identification, and the source’s confident ethnological genealogy should be treated as conjecture.
Tirathites
(1 Chron. 2:55)—one of the families of scribes dwelling at Jabez and associated with the Kenites. The meaning of the name is uncertain.
(2 Kings 19:9; Isa. 37:9)—the Kushite ruler later known as Pharaoh Taharqa of Egypt’s Twenty-fifth Dynasty. During Sennacherib’s campaign against Judah, a report came that Tirhakah was marching out to fight him. The exact chronology and Tirhakah’s status at that moment are discussed, since he became pharaoh somewhat later, but the biblical notice belongs to the Assyrian crisis in Hezekiah’s reign.
Tirhanah Tharam
(1 Chron. 2:48)—a son of Caleb by his concubine Maacah, in the genealogies of Judah.
—(1) Tiria, one of the sons of Jehallelel in the genealogies of Judah (1 Chron. 4:16). (2) A place-name preserved in the source’s textual tradition of 2 Samuel 23:11, near Philistine territory, where Shammah son of Agee defended a field of lentils and struck down the Philistines. The standard Hebrew text does not name the place in that verse, so “Theria” represents a variant tradition rather than a secure biblical site.
Tirshatha
(Ezra 2:63; Neh. 7:65, 70)—a Persian administrative title meaning governor, applied to the civil authority of the restored Judean community and explicitly to Nehemiah (Neh. 8:9; 10:1). Its etymology is uncertain; the source’s derivation from “strictness” is obsolete.
(“delight” or “pleasantness”)—(1) one of the five daughters of Zelophehad, with Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, and Milcah (Num. 26:33; Josh. 17:3). Because their father had no sons, their appeal became central to the law of inheritance for daughters (Num. 27:1-11). (2) A Canaanite city conquered by Joshua and later an early royal capital of the northern kingdom of Israel (Josh. 12:24; 1 Kings 14:17; 15:21, 33; 16:8-23).
Tishbite
(1 Kings 17:1; 21:17; 2 Kings 1:3)—the designation of the prophet Elijah, most naturally meaning that he came from Tishbe in Gilead. The source associates the name with Tobit’s Thisbe in Naphtali, but Elijah is explicitly called an inhabitant or sojourner of Gilead. See Thisbe.
Tishbite
(1 Chron. 11:45 in the source’s textual tradition)—a designation based on birthplace or residence. The source applies it to Joha, brother of Jediael son of Shimri, among David’s warriors; the spelling and verse numbering vary among traditions.
—the seventh month of the religious calendar and first month of the later Jewish civil year, falling in September–October. Its festivals include the Feast of Trumpets, the Day of Atonement, and the Feast of Booths. In the older biblical nomenclature the month is called Ethanim, and Solomon’s Temple was dedicated in that month (1 Kings 8:2). See Ethanim.
(honorable; Gal. 2:1)—a Gentile Christian and trusted coworker of the Apostle Paul. Paul refused demands that Titus be circumcised, defending the freedom of Gentile believers (Gal. 2:3–5). Titus served as Paul’s emissary to Corinth, helped bring the difficult relationship with that church toward reconciliation, and assisted with the collection for the saints (2 Cor. 7:6–16; 8:6, 16–23). Paul later left him in Crete to set in order what remained and appoint elders in every town (Titus 1:5). Church tradition remembers him as bishop of Crete; the New Testament does not call him one of the Seventy or state that he came from Antioch.
Titus Manlius
(2 Macc. 11:34)—one of the Roman envoys, named with Quintus Memmius, who wrote to the Jewish people during the reign of Antiochus V Eupator. The source identifies him with the consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, but the identification is not certain.
Toah Thoas
(1 Chron. 6:34)—an ancestor of the prophet Samuel in the Kohathite line. The parallel genealogy in 1 Samuel 1:1 gives the related form Tohu.
Tob-adonijah Tobadonias
(the LORD is good—my Lord; 2 Chron. 17:8)—one of the Levites sent by Jehoshaphat with officials and priests to teach the Book of the Law throughout Judah.
(Judg. 11:3, 5; 1 Macc. 5:13)—a region east of the Jordan where Jephthah lived after fleeing from his brothers. The men of Tob appear among the Aramean allies hired against David (2 Sam. 10:6, 8). The Tobians of 2 Maccabees 12:17 were Jews living in or near the same Transjordanian district. Its precise boundaries are uncertain.
(the LORD is good)—the name of several persons. (1) (Tob. 1:9) Tobit’s son Tobias, described in the preceding article. (2) (2 Chron. 17:8) a Levite sent by Jehoshaphat, together with princes and priests, to teach the Book of the Law throughout Judah. (3) (Ezra 2:60) an ancestor of a family that returned with Zerubbabel but could not establish its Israelite genealogy; the parallel list in Nehemiah 7:62 preserves the same family group, while 1 Esdras has variant forms.
Tobians
(2 Macc. 12:17). See Tob, Land of.
Tobiel
(Tob. 1:1)—the father of Tobit, of the tribe of Naphtali.
(the LORD is good; Tob. 1:1; 6:1; 12:6)—the principal father and son in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit. Tobit, a Naphtalite living in Nineveh after the Assyrian exile, faithfully gave alms, fed the poor, and buried slain Israelites despite royal prohibition. After returning from hiding, he buried another corpse during Pentecost and slept outdoors because of ritual impurity. Bird droppings fell into his eyes and blinded him. His wife Anna supported the household; when he unjustly suspected that a goat given to her had been stolen, her rebuke deepened his grief and he prayed for death.
Tochen Thocca
(1 Chron. 4:32)—a town associated with Simeon. The parallel list in Joshua 19:7 has Ether, so the names may represent textual variants or neighboring settlements.
(Gen. 10:3; 1 Chron. 1:6; Ezek. 27:14; 38:6)—a son of Gomer and grandson of Japheth, and the ancestral name of a people associated with the far north. “Beth-togarmah” traded horses, warhorses, and mules with Tyre (Ezek. 27:14) and appears among the northern allies in Ezekiel’s oracle against Gog (Ezek. 38:6). The source identifies Togarmah broadly with Armenia; the name is often connected with eastern Anatolia, but its precise ethnic and geographical range remains debated.
Tohu Thoke Nasib
(1 Sam. 1:1)—an ancestor of Elkanah, father of the prophet Samuel. The parallel genealogy in 1 Chronicles 6:34 gives the related name Toah.
(2 Sam. 8:9-10; 1 Chron. 18:9-10)—king of Hamath and a contemporary of David. When he heard that David had defeated Hadadezer of Zobah, his longstanding enemy, Toi sent his son Joram—called Hadoram in Chronicles—to greet David and present articles of silver, gold, and bronze. David dedicated these gifts to the LORD together with the spoil of the nations he had subdued.
—(1) a judge of Israel, son of Puah and a man of Issachar. He arose after Abimelech, lived at Shamir in the hill country of Ephraim, judged Israel twenty-three years, and was buried there (Judg. 10:1-2). (2) The firstborn son of Issachar and ancestor of the Tolaites (Gen. 46:13; Num. 26:23; 1 Chron. 7:1-2).
Tolad Tholad
(1 Chron. 4:29)—a town in southern Judah allotted to Simeon, called Eltolad in Joshua 15:30 and 19:4.
Tolban
(1 Esd. 9:25)—a gatekeeper who had married a foreign woman. The corresponding name in Ezra 10:24 is Telem.
Tolman Talmon
(1 Esd. 5:28)—an ancestor of gatekeepers who returned from exile with Zerubbabel. Ezra 2:42 gives the corresponding name Talmon.
— among the ancient Hebrews these were generally located outside the bounds of the city (Luke 7:12; John 11:30). For tombs, or graves, in antiquity, caves or grottoes were most often used, especially among trees, or in gardens in shady places (Gen. 23:17; John 19:41). The dead were also buried by interment in the earth. Thus, for example, Rebekah’s nurse Deborah was buried under an oak (the oak of weeping) (Gen. 35:8). The wealthy hewed out tombs in the rocks (Isa. 22:16; Matt. 27:60; John 11:38) and on hillsides (2 Kings 23:16). For the poor, common burial places were set aside (Jer. 26:23; 2 Kings 23:6; Matt. 27:7).
(Gen. 35:20, Job 21:32, 2 Sam. 13:18)—in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, east of the Jordan, in Mesopotamia, as well as in neighboring countries, there still exist to this day, in considerable numbers, tombs of great antiquity and of the most varied kinds. Among the Hebrews, tombs were generally hewn out of the rock, which of course required considerable labor. The tombs of common people were doubtless made more simply and with less craftsmanship. The tombs of the patriarchs at Hebron, only partly investigated, probably consisted of a natural cave, or several caves, worked and adapted for this purpose (see Machpelah).
According to C. Pierotti’s account, these caves remain to this day in their natural state. The tomb of Christ the Savior in Jerusalem, the tombs of kings and other notable persons, are more or less elaborately worked. Some of the ancient Jews prepared tombs for themselves even during their lifetime, while others were buried in tombs prepared by their ancestors or predecessors (Judg. 8:32, 2 Sam. 2:32, 2 Kings 9:28). Tombs were built in gardens and various other places (2 Kings 21:26, 23:16, John 19:41).
For example, it may be mentioned that tombs are found even in such remote localities as the shores of the Dead Sea. In the days of Christ the Jews built tombs for the prophets and adorned the monuments of the righteous, but what these monuments and their adornments were like is not known (Matt. 23:27–29). In antiquity, the pyramids of the Egyptian kings are known to us as funerary monuments. The monument of the Maccabees at Modin is well known (1 Macc. 13:27). It was built of square stones and was so tall that it could be seen from afar; before it stood seven pyramids and, round about, great columns, upon which a dome was set.
(Exod. 28:17)—one of the precious stones set in the high priest’s breastpiece. The Hebrew term pitdah is traditionally rendered topaz, though ancient color terminology and mineral names do not correspond neatly to modern classification; chrysolite or olivine has also been proposed. The stone was associated in antiquity with the Red Sea region, but the source’s precise etymology and commercial anecdotes are not secure.
Topaz of Cush
(Job 28:19)—a precious stone from Cush, invoked in Job’s praise of wisdom: even this costly gem cannot equal wisdom’s value. Whether the ancient stone was identical with the mineral now called topaz is uncertain.
Tophel Lobon
(lime or mortar; Deut. 1:1)—a place named in the geographical setting of Moses’ address east of the Jordan. It has often been connected with Tafilah in modern Jordan, but the identification is uncertain.
Topheth
. See Hinnom, Valley of.
Tovis
(1 Esd. 5:28)—an ancestor of a family of gatekeepers who returned from exile with Zerubbabel. Ezra 2:42 and Nehemiah 7:42 preserve the corresponding name Shobai.
Tower of Babel
. See Babel, Tower of.
(God is gracious; Neh. 3:1; 12:39)—a tower on the northeastern side of Jerusalem near the Tower of the Hundred and the Sheep Gate. It marked a prominent point in the repaired wall. Jeremiah 31:38 and Zechariah 14:10 also name it in promises concerning Jerusalem; translations preserve variant spellings such as Hananeel or Ananeel.
Tower of the Furnaces
(Neh. 3:11; 12:38)—one of the towers in the western wall of Jerusalem.
(Luke 3:1)—a rugged basaltic district east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee, governed by Philip the tetrarch during the ministry of Jesus. Its caves and difficult terrain long sheltered raiders. Herod the Great received authority in the region partly to suppress brigandage. The ancient district overlaps areas later known as the Lajat, though historical boundaries varied.
(Ezek. 17:4)—commerce in the ancient Near East moved both by caravan and by sea. The merchants to whom Joseph was sold traveled with aromatics from Gilead toward Egypt (Gen. 37:25–28). Arabian routes linked Egypt and the Levant with southern Arabia and lands farther east, while Phoenician ports, especially Sidon and Tyre, became leading centers of maritime exchange. Ezekiel 27 gives a wide-ranging catalogue of Tyre’s trading partners and goods. Egypt likewise exported and redistributed products through Mediterranean and Red Sea networks.
James 4:13 reflects the familiar practice of merchants planning to travel from city to city for profit, while warning that all such plans remain subject to the will of God.
(1 Cor. 11:2; 2 Thess. 2:15; 1 Tim. 6:20). Divine revelation is spread and preserved in the true Church in two ways: through Sacred Tradition and Holy Scripture. Sacred Tradition is the handing on, by word and example, of the doctrine of faith, the Law of God, the sacraments, and sacred rites from faithful worshipers of God to one another and from ancestors to descendants.
(Matt. 17:1-13; Mark 9:2-13; Luke 9:28-36)—Jesus took Peter, James, and John up a high mountain to pray. His face was transformed and shone like the sun; his clothes became dazzling white. Moses and Elijah appeared in glory and spoke with him about the “departure” or exodus he was to accomplish at Jerusalem. Peter proposed three dwellings, not yet understanding the mystery. A bright cloud overshadowed them, and the Father’s voice declared, “This is my Son, the Beloved, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him.” When the disciples looked again, they saw Jesus alone.
(Gen. 2:9; 3:22; Rev. 2:7) — a tree in the midst of Paradise, by whose fruit man would have been bodily free from sickness and death. It was an image of our life of grace and blessedness in the Lord God Jesus Christ; only by abiding in Him and being united with Him can man have spiritual and gracious life within himself. After sin and the expulsion from Paradise, the fruits of the tree of life were of no benefit to man, since he could no longer partake of them.
Tree of the knowledge of good and evil
(Gen. 2:9) — a tree in the midst of Paradise, whose fruit the first man was forbidden to eat, so called because by eating its fruit contrary to God’s command, man learned by his own experience what good lies in obedience to the will of God, and what evil lies in resisting it.
The principal trees of Palestine are described in our encyclopedia each under its own name. They are grouped together in the following manner by the writer of the book of Ecclesiastes [Ecclesiasticus]: “I was exalted like a cedar in Libanus, and as a cypress tree upon the mountains of Hermon. I was exalted like a palm tree in Engaddi, and as a rose plant in Jericho, as a fair olive tree in a pleasant field, and grew up as a plane tree by the water. As the terebinth I stretched out my branches, and my branches are the branches of honour and grace. As the vine brought I forth pleasant savour, and my flowers are the fruit of honour and riches” (Sirach 24:13–17).
(Matt. 19:28)—one of the major divisions of Israel descended from Jacob’s sons. Joseph’s inheritance was represented through Ephraim and Manasseh, while Levi was set apart for priestly and Levitical service; biblical lists therefore arrange the traditional number twelve in different ways according to purpose. Genealogical memory still identified persons by tribe in the New Testament period, such as Anna of Asher, Paul of Benjamin, and Christ according to the flesh from Judah (Luke 2:36; Rom. 11:1; Heb. 7:14).
- in the division of the Promised Land, Judah received its most extensive and important portion, from the Mediterranean to the Dead Sea and from the Brook of Egypt to the borders of Ephraim. Its inheritance contained very many cities (Josh 15), though some later passed to Simeon, Dan, and Benjamin (Josh 19:1-9). Nine of the cities were given to priests (Josh 21:9-19). According to tradition, the tribe's emblem was a lion's tail with the inscription: 'Rise up, LORD, and let thine enemies be scattered.'
(Num. 1:20–21)—received land east of the Jordan, between the Arnon on the south and Jazer on the north, with Gilead to the east and the Jordan to the west. At the first census after the Exodus it numbered 46,500 men aged twenty and upward; before the crossing of the Jordan it numbered 43,730 (Num. 1:20–21; 26:7). The source identifies its territory with the pasture-rich Belka. Because it lay east of the Jordan, the Reubenites were among the first carried into Assyrian captivity (1 Chron. 5:26).
Tribe of Simeon
—a tribe whose inheritance comprised nineteen towns within the territory of Judah, chiefly south of Dan. In Hezekiah’s time some Simeonites occupied portions of Mount Seir (1 Chron. 4:42).
Tribute, or toll
. See Publican.
Among the Hebrews there were taxes of two kinds: religious and civil. By Jewish law (Exod. 30:13–15), every Israelite over 20 years of age was obliged annually to give half a shekel to the Temple, as a ransom for his soul. This law, even after the Babylonian captivity, extended to all Jews, whether living in Palestine or outside it. From the time of the kings, civil taxes appear among the Hebrews. In Solomon’s time, taxes had become so burdensome that the people asked his son Rehoboam to lighten part of the tax burden.
Not receiving satisfaction of their request from Rehoboam, the Jews split into two kingdoms: Judah and Israel. After the conquest of Judea by the Romans, the Hebrews had to pay taxes to the Romans, through their native rulers. Under Quirinius, a census of all property was taken (Acts 5:37 [as given]) for the imposition of a land tax. Customs duties on trade, on roads, and at sea harbors were farmed out, which often gave rise to oppression, provoking murmuring among the people. The Lord and the apostles urged believers to fulfill exactly all their civic obligations, including the payment of taxes: “Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s; and unto God the things that are God’s” (Matt. 22:21).
“Render therefore to all their dues: tribute to whom tribute is due; fear to whom fear” (Rom. 13:7). The Lord Himself, in conversation with the Apostle Peter, showed him that although He, as the Son of God, might be exempted from paying the tax, yet, in order to forestall any misunderstanding among the people on the part of the tax collectors, He worked a miracle: namely, He commanded the Apostle Peter to go to the sea and cast a hook. The Apostle Peter went, and in the mouth of the fish that he caught he found a stater (four drachmas), and paid the tax both for the Lord and for himself (Matt. 17:27).
(2 Macc. 14:1)—the important Phoenician coastal city north of Sidon, at the foot of the Lebanon range. Its name, “three cities,” reflects its association with the communities of Tyre, Sidon, and Arvad. The modern city of Tripoli lies partly beyond the ancient settlement and remains a major Lebanese port.
(Acts 16:8–11)—Alexandria Troas, a port city in Mysia near the site of ancient Troy. Founded in the Hellenistic period and enlarged by Lysimachus, it became an important commercial center and Roman colony. At Troas Paul received the vision of a Macedonian man calling him to cross into Macedonia (Acts 16:9–10). He later preached there, and Eutychus fell from an upper room during a lengthy gathering and was restored alive (Acts 20:6–12).
Trogyllium
(Acts 20:15, textual variant)—a promontory on the western coast of Asia Minor opposite Samos, near Mount Mycale. Some later manuscripts add that Paul’s ship stayed there before proceeding to Miletus; the phrase is absent from several early witnesses and many modern translations.
(Acts 20:4)—an Ephesian Christian and companion of Paul. Jews in Jerusalem had seen him with Paul and falsely assumed that Paul had brought this Gentile into the Temple, helping provoke the disturbance that led to Paul’s arrest (Acts 21:27–29). Paul later wrote that he had left Trophimus sick at Miletus (2 Tim. 4:20). Traditions numbering him among the Seventy and describing his martyrdom are later than the New Testament.
The New Testament gives Jesus divine names, attributes, works, and worship. He is called God and Lord; Scripture ascribes to Him preexistence, eternity, knowledge, sovereign power, the creation and preservation of all things, authority to forgive sins, resurrection, and judgment (John 1:1–3; 8:58; 20:28; Rom. 9:5; Col. 1:15–20; Heb. 1:1–12). John applies Isaiah’s vision of the LORD’s glory to Christ (Isa. 6:1–10; John 12:37–41), and Revelation depicts all creation worshiping the Lamb (Rev. 5:9–14).
—a sin against the first commandment when one relies upon personal ability, human power, or another person in such a way that God’s mercy and help are forgotten. The creature then takes the place that belongs to the Creator. Jeremiah warns: “Cursed is the man who trusts in man and makes flesh his strength, whose heart turns away from the LORD” (Jer. 17:5). This does not condemn ordinary human cooperation but the idolatrous transfer of ultimate trust from God to a creature.
Tryphena
(Rom. 16:12)—a Christian woman in Rome greeted by Paul and commended as one who labored in the Lord.
Tryphon
(1 Macc. 11:39)—Diodotus Tryphon, a military leader who first supported the young Antiochus VI against Demetrius II and later seized the Seleucid throne. First Maccabees recounts his treachery toward Jonathan and his continuing conflict with Simon.
Tryphosa
(Rom. 16:12)—a Christian woman greeted with Tryphena by Paul as one who labored in the Lord. Their paired names may suggest kinship or another close association, but Scripture does not specify it.
Tubal
(Gen. 10:2)—a son of Japheth and ancestor of a people frequently named with Meshech in the prophets. See also Meshech.
—(1) a son of Japheth (Gen. 10:2; 1 Chron. 1:5); (2) a people named with Javan and Meshech in trade with Tyre, exchanging human beings and bronze vessels (Ezek. 27:13), and later associated with Gog’s northern coalition (Ezek. 38:2; 39:1). Tubal is commonly connected with peoples of Anatolia, but the biblical name should not be equated mechanically with a modern nation.
Tubal-cain Thobel
(Gen. 4:22)—a son of Lamech and Zillah, described as an instructor or forger of every cutting instrument of bronze and iron. The brief notice associates his line with the early development of metalworking; Scripture gives no further biography.
Tubal-cain Thobel
(Gen. 4:22)—a son of Lamech and Zillah and brother of Naamah. Genesis calls him an instructor or forger of every cutting instrument of bronze and iron. The brief notice places metalworking among the early arts of human civilization without stating that Tubal-cain invented every form of metallurgy.
(1 Sam. 5:6, 9, 12)—the painful affliction that struck Philistine cities after the capture of the ark. The Hebrew textual traditions use terms commonly rendered tumors, swellings, or hemorrhoids, while the accompanying mice and widespread death have led some interpreters to suggest epidemic disease such as bubonic plague. The precise diagnosis cannot be established. “Emerods” is the archaic English form found in the King James Version; modern English should use “tumors” without claiming more medical certainty than the text permits.
(Exod. 29:5; John 19:23)—a close-fitting garment worn next to the body by men and women and included in priestly clothing. Biblical usage can sometimes extend more broadly to a robe or garment. The tunic of the Lord Jesus, for which the soldiers cast lots, was seamless and woven in one piece from the top. Later tradition says that the Theotokos wove it, but John does not state who made it.
(Lev. 11:29; Hebrew *tsav*)—one of the land creatures declared unclean. Older Russian, Slavonic, and English translations sometimes rendered the word “tortoise” or “turtle,” while many modern versions prefer “great lizard.” The exact species is uncertain; the source itself observes that a large lizard may be meant rather than a zoological tortoise.
Twins
(Gen. 25:24)—two children born from the same pregnancy, as Esau and Jacob were born to Rebekah. The apostle Thomas is called the Twin, Didymus in Greek (John 11:16).
(Acts 20:4)—an Asian Christian and faithful companion of Paul. He traveled with the apostolic party, carried news and probably letters to churches, and is called “a beloved brother, and a faithful minister and fellowservant in the Lord” (Eph. 6:21; Col. 4:7). Paul considered sending him to Crete and later sent him to Ephesus (Titus 3:12; 2 Tim. 4:12). Later episcopal traditions vary and cannot be verified from Scripture.
(Acts 19:9)—the owner or teacher associated with the lecture hall at Ephesus where Paul reasoned daily after withdrawing from the synagogue. Through this sustained ministry, “all they which dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus” (Acts 19:10). Whether Tyrannus was a Greek rhetorician, philosopher, or another kind of teacher is unknown.
Tyrant
(2 Macc. 4:40). See Auranus.
(rock; Josh. 19:29)—the renowned Phoenician city on the Mediterranean coast. Ancient Tyre comprised an island stronghold and a settlement on the mainland, often called Palaetyrus or Old Tyre. It stood near the border of Asher, but remained under its own rulers. Hiram of Tyre maintained friendly relations with David and Solomon, supplied cedar, craftsmen, and building materials for the palace and Temple, and joined Solomon’s maritime ventures from Ezion-geber (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kings 5; 9:26–28).
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